January 23-24, 1964: More than 100 representatives of European electronics and aeronautical firms met in Brussels where they discussed feasibility of development project for manned shuttle service between earth and orbiting space stations (U.S. and Soviet). Recent cancellation of U.S. Dyna Soar project spurred the discussions. German delegation was headed by Dr. Eugen Saenger. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1964, p. 24.

During March1964: Martin-Denver revealed design concept of its Astrorocket, a proposed reusable aerospacecraft. Launched vertically, the vehicle would have two stages -- both manned -- equipped with auxiliary fan jets as well as rocket engines. After stage separation, first stage would re-enter atmosphere and land on airstrip like conventional airplane. Second stage, carrying payload, would also land at air base after completing mission. Astrorocket concept employed parallel staging rather than conventional bottom-to-top staging. Martin said advantages of the Astrorocket were its reusability and its capability to operate with existing air bases for space operations. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1964, p. 13.
 

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August 10, 1968: Dr. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, told British Interplanetary Society in London: “I believe that the exploitation of space is limited in concept and extent by the very high cost of putting payload into orbit, and the inaccessibility of objects after they have been launched. Therefore, I would forecast that the next major thrust in space will be the development of an economical launch vehicle for shuttling between Earth and the installations, such as the orbiting space stations which will be operating in space.” Dr. Mueller said efficient Earth-to-orbit transportation system would be needed to shuttle thousands of tons of material in and out of space, operating in mode similar to that of large commercial air transports and compatible with airports. Same technology could be applied to terrestrial point-to-point transport. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1968, p. 185.
 

January 28: 1969: In speech before New York Society of Security Analysts, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, Dr. George E. Mueller, said: “I believe that if we wanted to, we could have our space shuttle in operation by 1976… To achieve the desired economy, it will be necessary to operate this transportation system in the successful jet transport mode. Our space shuttle will probably take off from major airports with little or no noise. It will not create a sonic boom along the route. It will go into orbit, deposit and take on crew and cargo, and return for a horizontal airport landing.” He foresaw an international demand for reusable space vehicles. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 28.
 

February 1969

February 10, 1969: Marshall Space Flight Center announced it would manage two recently awarded $300,000 six-month contracts, one to Lockheed Missiles & Space Co. and one to General Dynamics Corp., for conceptual study of low-cost, manned logistics (space shuttle) system. Similar study contracts awarded to North American Rockwell Corp. and to McDonnell Douglas Astronautics co. would be managed by Manned Spacecraft Center* and Langley Recearch Center. Integral Launch and Reentry Vehicle (ILRV) studies would investigate aspects of reusable transportation system for post-1974 use in support of proposed space stations. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 47.

* The Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) is now known as the Johnson Space Flight Center, Houston, Texas.

March 1969

March 11, 1969: Dr. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, testified on advanced manned missions before House Committee on Science and Astronautics’ Subcommittee on Manned Space Flight. He explained importance of lunar exploration and outlined plans for new space station. Within new program category - Space Flight Operations -, NASA was bypassing intermediate space station, launch vehicles, and logistic craft and proposing to move directly to new, semi-permanent space station and low-cost Earth-to-orbit transportation system. Space station “should be in being by the mid-1970s.” With Fiscal Year (FY) 1969 funds, contractor definition efforts were being initiated. FY 1970 funds would continue definition, preliminary design, and supporting work. Dr. Mueller described space complex 300 to 500 km above Earth planned for 10 years’ continuous operation and adaptable for crew size, additional laboratory facilities, or other special-purpose equipment through selection, design, and arrangement of component modules. Crew would rotate at three- to six-month intervals, ferried between station and Earth by reusable shuttles. Station’s electric power would come from solar panels or small nuclear generator. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 73-4.

March 11, 1969: In Washington Post, Victor Cohn reports that a yet unreleased report of Dr. Charles H. Townes’ space task force appointed by President Nixon urged both vigorous manned space program and development of reusable space shuttle. Presidential Science Adviser, Dr. Lee A. DuBridge, had declared himself for “a really solid, many-faceted program.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 83.
 

April 1969

April 14, 1969: Nixon Administration was responding to NASA requests for $200 million supplemental research-and-development (R&D) funds by “emphatically ordering future reductions” in FY 1970 budget, said William J. Normyle in Aviation Week & Space Technology. The Bureau of Budget (BOB) had told NASA Administrator to plan on $140-million loss despite conclusions of House subcommittees that NASA's R&D should be increased $234.4 million. Until Nixon decisions on U.S. space future, cut would “wipe out” work on space stations, shuttle/logistics vehicles, and manned lunar exploration. Feasible future programs were being studied by President’s ad hoc committee which would report in September. -Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 108-9.
 

May 1969

May 7, 1969: NASA announced establishment of task group on manned space station under Dr. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, and of a task group on space shuttle under Charles W. Mathews, Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight. His group would develop NASA material for report on space shuttles to President’s Space Task Group by June 15. -Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 131.

May 14, 1969: Rep. George P. Miller (D-Calif.) introduced in House H.R. 11271, substitute NASA FY 1970 authorization bill increasing total from $3.716 billion to $3.966 billion. Bill added $66 million for space station and shuttle. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 138.
 
 

July 1969

On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstong became the first man to walk on another world. This feat marks the apogee of the U.S. space program.
 

August 1969

August 5, 1969: NASA was using “concept of reusability” in planning to improve and reduce cost of operating in space, reports Dr. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight. Reusability could be achieved “through the reuse of launch and space vehicles and … through the reuse of a mission module such as a space station” put into orbit and used over 10-year or even 20-year period. Space shuttles would be designed to run 100 or more flights. Modules and vehicles would be designed for multiple applications in Earth, lunar, and synchronous orbits. Space tug would permit travel from space station to other spacecraft and back again, “general purpose … equipment.” In Earth orbital operations, “it permits us to fly off from the space station over to … an OAO, orbiting astronomical observatory, either to repair or check the OAO, or to bring it back to a space station where it can then be loaded on the space shuttle for return to Earth and then brought back into orbit after repairs.” -Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 266.

August 5, 1969: Future space program was described by Dr. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight. Reusable nuclear vehicle to serve as space shuttle between space station in Earth orbit and space station in lunar orbit would be “final link that would permit us to reduce the cost of operation to something like $200 for moving a pound of material [~$250/kg] from the Earth’s surface to the lunar surface and return as compared to something like $100 thousand a pound using today’s techniques. Similar reductions in the cost of transportation to the Earth orbital station will permit us for the first time to consider processing materials in space, to use space for the kind of laboratory work that we now associate with ground-based laboratories.”  By end of 1970s “we would find so many uses for operations in synchronous orbit both for observing the Universe and for observing the Earth that we would have established a space station in synchronous orbit which would be regularly supplied by a nuclear shuttle system and which would provide us with direct television broadcasting and direct radio broadcasting to the homes of all people in the world, as well as providing us with great stellar observatories and a viewing platform for air traffic control, navigation and for a permanent weather watch. “… this approach to using space is one that is readily extended, once the shuttle capability has been developed, to a corresponding approach for planetary exploration and … the same nuclear shuttle system together with the space station modules need only to be supplemented by a Mars landing module to permit us to carry out the first manned planetary expedition to Mars.”  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 268-9.

August 11, 1969: Rep. George P. Miller (D-Calif.), Chairman of House Committee on Science and Astronautics, told: “… I do not at this time wish to commit ourselves to a specific time period for setting sail for Mars. I believe that there are many tasks that can be accomplished that will ultimately provide that capability, but will be less costly and will be necessary in meeting short term objectives.” He urged priority attention to intermediate steps and balanced program “that fully exploits the great potential of unmanned spacecraft, while at the same time maintaining a vigorous manned flight program.” He advocated continuation of lunar exploration to obtain “experience of operating a Base for science and exploration on another heavenly body”; manned Earth-orbital operations leading to long-term space station supported by low-cost shuttle rocket; greater emphasis on applications satellites that “have the greatest potential for economic return in the near term” […]  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 275-6.
 

September 1969

This picture illustrates a concept of a 10-meter-diameter space station Leading to a Space Base. In-house work of the Marshall Space Flight Center, as well as a Phase B contract with the McDornel Douglas Astronautics Company, resulted in a preliminary design for a space station in 1969 and l970. The Marshall-McDonnel Douglas approach envisioned the use of two common modules as the core configuration of a 12-man space station. Each common module was 10 metres in diameter and 12 metres in length and provided the building blocks, not only for the space station, but also for a 50-man space base. Coupled together, the two modules would form a four-deck facility: two decks for laboratories and two decks for operations and living quarters. Zero-gravity would be the normal mode of operation, although the station would have an artificial gravity capability. This general-purpose orbital facility was to provide wide-ranging research capabilities. The design of the facility was driven by the need to accommodate a broad spectrum of activities in support of astronomy, astrophysics, aerospace medicine, biology, materials processing, space physics, and space manufacturing. To serve the needs of Earth observations, the station was to be placed in a 451-kilometre orbit at a 55° inclination. An Intermediate-21 vehicle (comprised of Saturn S-IC and S-II stages) would have launched the station in 1977. (Credit: MSFC)

September 15, 1969: Space Task Group presented report The Post-Apollo Space Program: Directions for the Future to President Nixon. It recommended basic goal of balanced manned and unmanned space program conducted for all mankind, with emphasis on increased utilization of space capabilities for services to man through expanded space applications program; enhancement of U.S. defense posture for world peace and security through exploitation of space techniques for military missions; continuing strong program of lunar and planetary exploration, astronomy, physics, and Earth and life sciences; development of new systems and technology for space operations, emphasizing commonality, reusability, and economy through development of new space transportation capability and space station modules; and promotion of world community through program of broad international participation and cooperation. 
          As focus for development of new capability, Task Group recommended U.S. accept long-range goal of manned planetary exploration with manned Mars mission before end of century. Activities leading to goal should include initial concentration on exploiting existing capability and developing new one while maintaining program balance within available resources; operational phase using new systems and capabilities in Earth-Moon space, with men living and working in that environment for extended periods; and manned exploration missions out of Earth-Moon space, using experience of earlier two phases. 
          Report outlined three possible NASA programs for manned Mars landing before century’s end: 

•	Option I would launch manned mission in mid-1980s and would establish orbiting lunar station, 50-man Earth-orbiting space base, and lunar surface base. Funding would rise from current $4-billion level to $8- to $10-billion level in 1980. Decision to proceed with development of space station, Earth-to-orbit shuttle, and space tug would be required in FY 1971.
•	Option II would include Mars mission launch in 1986, allowing for evaluation of unmanned Mars mission results before final designation of landing date and require about $8-billion maximum annual expenditure in early 1980s.
•	Option III would include initial development of space station and reusable shuttles, as in Options I and II, but would defer decision on manned Mars landing date while maintaining goal of after 1980 but before close of century. Concurrent development of space transportation system and modular space stations wouid require rise in 1976 annual expenditures to $5.7 billion, while their development in series would entail $4- to $S-billion funding level.

         At White House briefing following presentation, press secretary Ronald L. Ziegler said President Nixon had concurred in Task Group’s rejection of two other, extreme space programs, one to land men on Mars as soon as possible, regardless of cost, and one to eliminate manned flight program after completion of Apollo. He did not know when President would make decision on course to follow, but budgetary considerations would be major factor.  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 304-5.
 

This 1969 artist's concept illustrates the use of three major elements of NASA's Integrated program, as proposed by President Nixon's Space Task Group. In Phases I and II, a space tug with a manipulator-equipped crew module removes a cargo module from an early space shuttle orbiter and docks with it. In Phases III and IV, the space tug with attached cargo module flys toward a nuclear shuttle. (Credit: MSFC)

As part of the Space Task Group's recommendations for more commonality and integration in America's space program, Marshall Space Flight Center engineers proposed an orbiting propellant storage facility to augment space shuttle missions. In this artist's concept from 1969 an early version of the space shuttle is shown refueling at the facility. (Credit: MSFC)

As a result of the Space Task Group's recommendations for more commonality and integration in the American space program, Marshall Space Flight Center engineers studied many of the spacecraft depicted here.
 

October 1969

October 2, 1969: Manned Spacecraft Center announced appointment of astronaut Gordon Cooper as Assistant for Space Shuttle Program in Manned Spacecraft Center's Flight Crew Operations Directorate. Cooper would be responsible for flight crew training program, astronaut inputs into design and engineering, and directorate’s part in hardware development and testing for space shuttle. He would remain on flight status and eligible for space flight. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 325.

October 15, 1969: Washington Post reported interview with Lieut.-Gen. Samuel C. Phillips, Commander of USAF Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO) and former NASA Apollo Program Director. Space shuttle was SAMSO’s top priority program. New family of spaceships was being roughed out on drawing boards. “From a military standpoint, we need to be aggressive advocates of the capability to take a look at and deal as necessary with space vehicles of another country.” USAF and NASA were dividing labor on space shuttle program, which would cost estimated $1 billion. Pace of program would depend on progress toward development of reusable rocket engine which would not burn itself out as it hurtled into space, LeRoy E. Day, Chief of NASA Space Shuttle Task Group, said. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 336.

October 24, 1969: Dr. George E, Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, addressed 25th Annual General Meeting of IATA. Desired characteristics of space shuttle, which could be operational by 1976, would anticipate those of next generation of air transports, possibly, global transport “so that no place on Earth would be more than an hour from any other.”  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 350.

October 29, 1969: Space shuttle was “first step or keystone to the success and growth of future space flight developments for the exploration and exploitation of space,” LeRoy E. Day and B. G. Noblitt of Space Shuttle Task Group, NASA Office of Manned Space Flight, said in paper presented at IEEE EASCON Session on Earth Orbiting Manned Space Station. “Large experiment modules and unmanned satellites can be placed into low Earth orbit and retrieved as desired. Propulsive stages and payloads … destined for higher energy orbits can be placed into low Earth orbits.” On-orbit reusable shuttles like space tugs and nuclear stages “become economically advantageous once propellants can be inexpensively delivered to Earth orbit… On-orbit maintenance services can be provided for malfunctioning or inoperative satellites… short duration special purpose orbital missions can be conducted by the space shuttle itself to augment or complement space station activities. The design and operational characteristics of the space shuttle will also provide a potential capability to conduct space rescue missions - a capability that is not practical with conventional expendable launch systems:” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 354.
 

November 1969

November 12, 1969: Rep. Joseph E. Karth (D-Minn.), Chairman of Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications of House Committee on Science and Astronautics, addressed National Space Club in Washington, D.C.: “During the entire spectrum of our second and third decades in space, manned space flight has not merely been emphasized, but has literally cannibalized any hope for major scientific, planetary, interplanetary, communications, meteorological, oceanographic (in cooperation with satellites), Earth resources satellite programs, etc.! I must conclude … that the only valid justification for early development of the shuttle is to supply the newborn 50-100 crew manned space stations and the manned exploration of Mars.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 371.
 

December 1969

December 17, 1969: Dr. Thomas O. Paine, NASA Administrator, in letter to Sen. Clinton P. Anderson, Chairman of Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, summarized recent NASA efforts to improve international cooperation in space. He had visited major European capitals and Canada and hoped to visit Australia and Japan, to explain “planning for U.S. space activities in the next decades.” Foreign space authorities had been invited to “sponsor their own industrial participation in the NASA conference on space shuttle concepts held in October. “Additional mechanisms are being developed to permit foreign space interests to keep in touch with and even contribute to our studies over the next year, especially in the space shuttle and station programs.”  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 411.

During December 1969: Coming age of economy space flight was discussed by J. S. Butz, Jr., in Air Force and Space Digest. Space shuttle was key to opening of space “much as the railroads opened a stream of travel into the American West.” It was “complex and expensive system that is within our grasp if the nation’s technology and management are willing to meet challenges of herculean proportions.” In prospect was day when astronauts would be as numerous as present-day airline pilots, space flights would be scheduled, almost daily, and “virtually any young man who yearns to voyage into space will be able to do so at some point in his life.”  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 419-20.

During 1969: International highlights in 1969 included around-the-world tour of Dr. Thomas O. Paine, to inform ministerial and space agency officials abroad of U.S. space plans and invite their participation and participation of foreign experts in NASA conference on space shuttle concepts.- Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1969, p. 424.
 

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January 1970

January 13, 1970: Thomas O. Paine, NASA Administrator, said at a news conference on future plans that design of a reusable space shuttle would be started during Fiscal Year (FY) 1971 budget. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 12.
 

February 1970

February 2, 1970: NASA Headquarters briefing on FY 1971 budget, held January 31, was released: NASA would preserve strong future capability centered on development of economical, reusable space transportation system including shuttle, space station, and reusable nuclear rocket…  Assistant Administrator for Administration, William E. Lilly, during briefing had replied to question that planned fund request for space station and shuttle had been for $250 million to $260 million - supporting Task Group’s Option II, to provide operational systems in 1977 - but request had been cut to final $110 million. Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight Dale D. Myers had said program should give Civilian Year (CY) 1978 operational date. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 36, 37.

February 4-6, 1970: AIAA held Advanced Space Transportation Meeting at Patrick AFB and Cocoa Beach, Fla. In keynote address Charles W. Mathews, NASA Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, discussed capabilities of NASA reusable space shuttle. “In the area of multi-mission and multi-agency use, we are talking and thinking in the broadest sense. Certainly, the Department of Defense (DOD), in addition to NASA, has many requirements to carry payloads into space. Other agencies, the industrial community, and the academic community also have been involved in like fashion but have been… inhibited by the limited capabilities and costs of present launch systems and payloads. However, in addition to a higher level of participation within our own country, a much greater involvement is expected internationally because of the flexibility and utility of the space shuttle. Other nations might utilize a United States shuttle to carry and deploy their payloads or carry their personnel to a space station, but ultimately, nations or a consortium of nations may desire to operate their own shuttles just as foreign airlines operate U.S. developed commercial aircraft.”
        Design baselines at start of Phase B studies of shuttle included 1.6 million kg at liftoff and payload compartment volume of 4.6-rneter diameter by 18.3-meter long.
        Pan American World Airways President Najeeb E. Halaby said NASA reusable space shuttle was logical step toward ship for commercial travel to orbit and back and for point-to-point Earth transportation. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 41.

February 5, 1970: Marshall Space Flight Center announced award of separate $150,000 three-month contracts to three firms to study possible conversion of 12 existing rocket engine test stands for captive firings of propulsion system for new space shuttle engine. New engine, not yet under development, would be used in clusters to power reusable space shuttle which could be flown up to 100 times. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 42.

A space tug is deployed/serviced from a space shuttle vehicle . (Credit: MSFC)

February 13, 1970: Christian Science Monitor editorial said NASA had postponed unmanned Viking Mars mission [from 1973 to 1975] because of budget cutback but “it is keeping its space shuttle program pretty much on schedule.” Reusable space vehicle was “guarantee at space progress won’t be wholly shunted aside by budget stringencies.” It would “help to keep alive the interest of the big rocket and airframe contractors, and the enthusiasm of the thousands of researchers and scientists who have hoped to make space exploration their life work.”- Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 50.

February 13, 1970: Manned Spacecraft Center (Houston, Texas) announced establishment of Space Shuttle Program Office and appointment of Robert F. Thompson as Manager. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 50-1.

This is an artist's concept of a modular space station. In 1970 the Marshall Space Flight Center arnounced the completion of a study concerning a modular space station that could be launched by the planned-for reusable space shuttle. The study envisioned a space station composed of cylindrical sections 4.3 metres in diameter and of varying lengths joined to form any one of a number of possible shapes. The sections were restricted to 4.3 metres in diameter and 18 metres in length to be consistent with a shuttle cargo bay size of 4.5 by 18.3 metres (15 x 60 feet). Center officials said that the first elements of the space station could be in orbit by about 1978 and could be manned by three or six men. This would be an interim space station with sections that could be added later to form a full 12-man station by the early 1980s. (Credit: MSFC)

February 15, 1970: NASA was placing new emphasis on development of profitable manufacturing facilities orbiting in space and operated by private industry, because of budget cuts, New York Times article said. Industry participation could lead to operation and ownership of facilities by organizations like ComSatCorp, “prototype of such a joint undertaking.” NASA would make available facilities like space shuttle transportation system, space workshops, and station at mutually agreeable price. Some manufacturing might be more economical in space because of high vacuum and zero g, but before program could become practical, NASA would have to move into “more highly developed operational stage… more applicable to research and development and to manufacturing.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 52.

February 15, 1970: West German government was ready to accept partnership arrangement with U.S. in seven-year space shuttle program, William Wines reported in Washington Sunday Star. Nixon Administration had “gone openly shopping” for foreign assistance in project. There was dispute over how far negotiations had gone, “but the West Germans believe they have been offered a 10 percent piece of the action in exchange for about $570 million in… Deutschemarks, payable 300 million marks annually for seven years.” NASA had said discussions had been going on with eight foreign countries. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 52.

February 17, 1970: Agreement to ensure that space transportation system (STS) would be of maximum utility to both NASA and DOD was signed by NASA Administrator, Dr. Thomas O. Paine, and Secretary of the Air Force, Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr. STS was to provide U.S. with “economical capability for delivering payloads of men, equipment, supplies, and other spacecraft to and from space by reducing operating costs an order of magnitude below those of present systems.” Program would include international participation and use. NASA would manage STS development, with project generally unclassified. STS would consist of “Earth-to-orbit space shuttle.” Agreement established NASA-USAF STS Committee to conduct continuing review of STS program and recommend steps to achieve “system that meets DOD and NASA requirements.” Recommendations would include, but not be limited to, “development and operational aspects, technology status and needs, resource considerations, and interagency relationships.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 53.

February 17, 1970: Dr. Thomas 0. Paine, NASA Administrator, testifying on NASA FY 1971 authorization, reports that NASA had no plans to fly astronauts in space between last Apollo flight in 1974 and the time space shuttle would be operative in late 1970s. “Any significant reduction in our FY 1971 request will further extend this gap in American manned space flight, and reduce other important programs.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 53.

February 17, 1970: NASA issued request-for-proposals for preliminary definition and planning studies for main propulsion system of reusable space shuttle. Preliminary concepts called for cluster of throttleable engines with 180-ton thrust each at sea level. North American Rockwell Corp.'s Rocketdyne Div., United Aircraft Corp. Pratt & Whitney Div., Aerojet-General Corp., TRW Inc.. Bell Aerospace Systems, and Marquardt Corp. would submit proposals by March 20. Three firms would be awarded fixed-price contracts for 11-month parallel studies.- Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 54.

February 27, 1970: Dale D. Myers, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, testifying on NASA FY 1971 authorization, reports that, In FY 1971, NASA proposed to complete definition of space shuttle and space station and continue studies of systems, missions, and payloads for further economies in future years. In space shuttle program, shuttle would be “designed so that it can be maintained in a state of launch readiness for lengthy periods and yet be launched within two hours notice into an orbit of any inclination. In the event of an emergency in space, it would be able to carry engineering or repair specialists to overcome the problem or rescue an endangered crew.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 67.
 

March 1970

March 7, 1970: Dr. Thomas O. Paine, NASA Administrator, reports that the space shuttle would take off vertically; and at 64-km and 11,300 km/hr, 2nd stage would separate and carry 22.5-ton payload of men, equipment, and supplies into Earth orbit, with 1st stage returning to Earth for horizontal landing. After mission of up to two weeks, 2nd stage would reenter atmosphere and land horizontally for reuse. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 67.

On March 9, 1970, the New York Times comments: “When it becomes available, the reusable space shuttle will… facilitate construction of a permanent manned orbiting space station that will open up new areas of scientific and economic activity in the near neighborhood of Earth.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 82.

March 13, 1970: NASA held briefing on space station and shuttle programs for representatives of 17 nations, ELDO, ESC, and ESRO.  Dr. Thomas O. Paine, NASA Administrator, said foreign participation was step in NASA’s continuing efforts to inform other nations of post-Apollo program planning so that they might determine extent to which they wished to participate in it. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 88.

On March 14, 1970: The Economist commented: “NASA’s future plans may not brighten the back of cereal boxes but they are solid, varied and balanced. The dangers from now-on are not likely to be financial but technical: the space shuttle will be hard to make.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 90.

March 31, 1970: In first public appearance since assuming duties at NASA Headquarters. as Deputy Associate Administrator for Planning, Dr. Wernher von Braun held press conference on NASA planning procedures. He comments that even without budget restraints, it would be “something like 1977 before we could have a shuttle flying.” NASA was “in continuous touch with the Air Force” in space shuttle and space station field. “The armed forces… have the duty to look into everything that may have a defense aspect, and so it is entirely proper that they want to understand the ramifications of space.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 104, 105.

During March, Dr. James A. Van Allen, Univ. of Iowa Director of Physics and Astronomy Depts., comments that there was general feeling, mostly from aeronautics and allied industries, that development of space flight was important to U.S. future in same sense that aircraft development had been. “I think this is fundamentaly a false analogy.” Space shuttle and space station were feasible. “Whether or not it is sensible to pursue them, I have a great difficulty in judging.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 105, 106.
 

April 1970

April 1, 1970: Space shuttle mission capabilities were described by LeRoy E. Day, Manager of Space Shuttle Task Group in NASA Office of Manned Space Flight. in paper presented at AIAA conference on Test Effectiveness in the '70s: “It is envisioned that the shuttle will eventually rep!ace essentially all of the present-day launch vehicles or their derivatives except for very small vehicles of the Scout class and the Saturn V. This will be possible because low operational costs of the reusable shuttle will make it competitive even if it carries only a fraction of its full payload capability on particular missions. In addition to the low launch costs, we expect the benign acoustic and acceleration environment of the shuttle to allow significant reductions in the cost of payloads. Acceleration during descent and reentry will be less than 3 g’s. Payload design will be further aided by allowing greater bay accommodations. Preliminary analyses indicate reductions in payload development costs of 25-30 percent may be expected.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 107.

April 30, 1970: NASA announced selection of Aerojet Liquid Rocket Co., North American Rockwell Corp.'s Rocketdyne Div., and United Aircraft Corp. Pratt & Whitney Div. for final negotiations of $6-million, fixed-price contracts for 11-month parallel studies for design definition of space shuttle main propulsion system. Contracts would be managed by Marshall Space Flight Center. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 157.
 

May 1970

May 4, 1970: Manned Spacecraft Center successfully conducted initial system verification tests of 1/10 size, dynamically scaled, experimental model of proposed 12.5K Space Orbiter Shuttlecraft in 2.4-kilometre drop from helicopter at Fort Hood, Texas. Initial test and continuing drop tests at White Sands Missile Range were to demonstrate transition from high angle of attack reentry to level cruise attitude, to demonstrate stability in stalled conditions, and to obtain free-flight data. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 165.

May 6, 1970: Senate passed, by vote of 69 to 15, H.R. 16516, $3.316-billion NASA FY 1971 authorization, after rejecting amendment by Sen. Walter F. Mondale (D-Minn.) to delete $110 million for definition and design of space shuttle and space station. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 166.

May 12, 1970: NASA selected McDonnell Douglas Corp. and North American Rockwell Corp.'s Space Division to negotiate 11-month, $8-million, fixed-price contracts for parallel definition and preliminary design studies of two-stage reusable space shuttle vehicle to transport crew, passengers, and cargo between Earth and near space. Marshall Space Flight Center would manage McDonnell Douglas work and Manned Spacecraft Center would manage North American Rockwell Corp. work. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 170.

May 22, 1970: Marshall Space Flight Center announced award of three contracts for continuation of nuclear shuttle definition studies: $343,000 to McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. for completely modular concept with Earth-to-orbit shuttle to transport modules for in-space assembly; $245,000 to North American Rockwell Corp. Space Div. for nuclear stage with 10-metre diameter to be orbited by Saturn V and refueled by Earth-to-orbit shuttle; and $282,000 to Lockheed Missiles & Space Co. for both types. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 179.
 

This artist's concept from 1970 shows a nuclear shuttle docked to an orbital propellant depot and an early space shuttle. (Credit: MSFC)	This 1970 artist's concept illustrates the use of the space shuttle, nuclear shuttle, and space tug in NASA's Integrated Program. As a result of the Space Task Group's recommendations for more commonality and integration in the American space program. (Credit: MSFC)

As envisioned by Marshall Space Flight Center Program Development plarners, the nuclear shuttle, in either manned or unmanned mode, would deliver payloads to lunar orbit or other destinations then return to Earth orbit for refueling and additonal missions. Marshall Space Flight Center engineers studied many of the spacecraft depicted here.
 

This 1970 artist's concept shows a nuclear shuttle in flight. (Credit: MSFC)	This artist's concept shows a nuclear shuttle taking on fuel from an orbiting liquid hydrogen depot. (Credit: MSFC)

As envisioned by Marshall Space Flight Center Program Development persornel, the nuclear shuttle would deliver payloads to lunar orbit or other destinations then return to Earth orbit for refueling and additional missions.
 

In this 1970 artist's concept, the nuclear shuttle is shown in its lunar and geosynchronous orbit configuration and in its planetary mission configuration.  (Credit: MSFC)	In this artist's concept from 1970, propulsion concepts such as the nuclear shuttle and space tug are shown in conjunction with other proposed spacecraft. (Credid: MSFC)

As a result of the recommendations from President Nixon's Space Task Group for more commonality and integration in the American space program, Marshall Space Flight engineers studied many of the spacecraft depicted here.

May 26, 1970: Marshall Space Flight Center Advanced Systems Analysis Office was investigating possible uses of space tug, multipurpose vehicle to be developed simultaneously with larger space shuttle, Marshall Space Flight Center announced. Only space yehicle that would work with and connect all existing and future vehicles and systems, tug would first be used as link between space shuttle and space station to taxi cargo and passengers in Earth orbit. Both Marshall Space Flight Center and Manned Spacecraft Center were working to develop space tug plans. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 179.
  Managed by Marshall Space Flight Center, the space tug concept was intended to be a reusable multipurpose space vehicle designed to transport payloads to different orbital inclinations. Utilizing mission-specific combinations of its three primary modules (crew, propulsion, and cargo) and a variety of supplementary kits, the space tug was capable of numerous space applications. $This 1970 artist's concept illustrates the crew module concept. (Credit: MSFC &  MSFC)

This space tug concept, proposed as a reusable multipurpose space vehicle to transport payloads to different orbital inclinations, was intended to serve as an important link between the space shuttle and the space station or any other orbital element requiring crew and/or cargo transportation. (Credit: MSFC)

May 26, 1970: Marshall Space Flight Center announced selection of McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. and TRW Inc. for final negotiations leading to four contracts (two per company) totaling $1.2 million for space shuttle auxiliary propulsion system definition. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 179.
 

May 27, 1970: One-tenth-size model of Manned Spacecraft Center's 12.5K Space Orbiter Shuttlecraft was air-dropped from CH-54 helicopter at low speed from 2.4-km altitude at White Sands Missile Range in series of tests to demonstrate vehicle’s transition from high angle of attack reentry to level cruise attitude and stability of vehicle in stall conditions and to obtain free-flight data to assist in aerodynamic analytical transition prediction techniques. Test vehicle was 4 metres long with fuselage 1/2-metre in diameter, weighed 270 kg, and had 2.5-metre wing span. Test was adjudged “limited success” because vehicle’s entry angle was too steep. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 182-3.

Space Orbiter Shuttlecraft model was air-dropped from helicopter to demonstrate transition from a high angle of attack reentry to cruise attitude and stability in stall conditions. For the tests, the nose was made of crushable material to attenuate landing shock; the wings were replaceable.

May 28, 1970: In letter to Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.), Dr. Thomas O. Paine, NASA Administrator, replied to inquiries on design, cost, and operation of space shuttle: “NASA and DOD have been working for more than three years on the preliminary analysis of alternate approaches and concepts, and on the research and technology effort needed to determine whether it is appropriate to develop reusable vehicles that will substantially reduce the cost of operating in space. We have concluded that this is an achievable objective. We are convinced that availablility of these vehicles will lead to significant changes in our concepts of operation in space environment as well as reductions in costs. Accordingly, we selected contractors on May 12 to proceed into the second or definitive phase of detailed study, comparative analysis, and preliminary design directed toward facilitating the choice of a single program approach. … We will decide at the conclusion of this phase whether it is appropriate to settle on a single design or continue competitive approaches.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 183.
 

June 1970

June 9, 1970: NASA successfully conducted second drop test of 12.5K Space Orbiter Shuttlecraft at White Sands Missile Range. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 198.

June 9, 1970: Manned Spacecraft Center announced selection of United Aircraft Corp’s Pratt & Whitney Div. and General Electric Co.’s Direct Energy Conversion Business Section to negotiate parallel cost-plus-fixed-fee contracts for development of fuel-cell technology leading to design, fabrication, and testing of engineering-model fuel-cell system. Contracts, which would run for 13 months beginning July 1, were valued at $825,000 each. Manned Spacecraft Center program to provide electrical power for space shuttle was aimed at development of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with 5,000-hr lifetime, 5,000-w power output, and weight of 333 kg or less. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 199.

June 15, 1970: NASA announced it would negotiate with Grumman Aerospace Corp., Lockheed Aircraft Corp., and Chrysler Corp. for 11-month Phase A (feasibility) contracts to study space shuttle concepts. Boeing Co. would be major subcontractor to Grumman on $4-million contract for three shuttle concepts: stage-and-a-half shuttle of reusable manned spacecraft with onboard propulsion system and droppable tanks for supplementary propellants; reusable orbiter with expendable booster; and reusable 1st stage using existing J-2s engine technology, solid-propellant auxiliary boosters, and reusable 2nd-stage orbital shuttle with S-2 engine. Lockheed’s $1-million fixed-price contract would define alternate stage-and-a-half shuttle system including high and low cross-range designs. Chrysler Corp. would study reusable vehicle capable of placing payload into Earth orbit with single stage, under $750,000 contract. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 203-4.
 

In 1970, NASA initiated Phase A contracts to study alternate space shuttle designs in addition to the two-stage fully-reusable space shuttle system already under development. A number of alternate systems were developed to ensure the development of the optimum Earth-to-orbit system, including the stage-and-a-half chemical interorbital shuttle, shown here. The concept would utilize a reusable marned spacecraft with an onboard propulsion system attached to an expendable fuel tank to provide supplementary propellants. )Credit: MSFC)  Below, alternate space shuttle concepts.
 

June 17, 1970: Physicist Dr. Ralph E. Lapp testified before Subcommittee on Economy in Government of Joint Economic Committee on changing national priorities: “If we eliminate the space shuttle and the space station, then the NASA budget can be trimmed to a level below $3 billion per year throughout the rest of this decade. Such a decision will shift NASA’s priorities from sensational manned space ventures to space science and its applications. If the U.S. space program is restructured to this new pattern and the Apollo manned lunar program is allowed to run out, it should be possible to effect further economies in the NASA budget…” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 207-8.

June 29, 1970: Sen. Walter F. Mondale (D-Minn.), for himself, Sen. Clifford P. Case (R-N.J.), Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wis.), and Sen. Jacob K. Javits (R-N.Y.), submitted amendment to H.R. 17548, FY 1971 Independent Offices and HUD appropriations bill which would reduce NASA R&D appropriation by $110 million - amount requested by NASA for design and definition of space shuttle and station. Sen. Mondale said: “This project represents NASA’s next major effort in manned space flight. The $110 million… is only the beginning of the story. NASA’s preliminary cost estimates for development of the space shuttle/station total almost $14 billion, and the ultimate cost may run much higher. Furthermore, the shuttle and station are the first essential steps toward a manned Mars landing… which could cost anywhere between $50 to $100 billion. I have seen no persuasive justification for embarking upon a project of such staggering costs at a time when many of our citizens are malnourished, when our rivers and lakes are polluted, and when our cities and rural areas are decaying.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 217.
 

July 1970

July 6, 1970: Senate, debating H.R. 17548, FY 1971 Independent Offices and HUD appropriations bill, rejected by vote of 32 to 28 June 29 Mondale amendment to eliminate $110 million for space shuttle and station from $3.319-billion NASA appropriation. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 225.

July 15-17, 1970: Conference on Space Shuttle Technology at LeRC was attended by more than 600 representatives of industry, universities, and foreign countries. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 234.

July 27, 1970: William J. Normyle commented on July 15-17 Conference on Space Shuttle Technology at LeRC in Aviation Week & Space Technology: “Problems facing the development of the system were far more evident than solutions.” Lack of resolution had led to decision to hold another conference in nine months, by which time NASA “will have produced some key solutions.” It was clear at meeting “that experts in a number of fields differ with their colleagues on selection of such basics as thermal protection, design configuration, materials, integrated avionics, operations and crew systems.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 246.
 

August 1970

August 2, 1970: European role in future NASA plans was discussed by London Sunday Telegraph: “White House officials appear to share the belief that announced. Unit was heart of gas chromatograph system developed  Congress will react more favorably to post-Apollo if it can be launched internationally, on the grounds that it would increase stability between nations, and in the !ong term cut the cost of major space programmes. For N.A.S.A. it would have the added advantage that such a programme, once begun, would be difficult for a new American administration to halt or cut back dramatically.” Europe held “high card” in negotiations toward international space program. “N.A.S.A. needs a decision early next year so that the post-Apollo programme can be placed before Congress as an international venture.” Europe would plan on conventional U .S. launch vehicles for commercial and scientific satellites in decade it took to make space shuttle operational. “Then the European Space Launcher Development can be scrapped and the money invested in post-Apollo.” If Europe and U.S. “start the ball rolling in space cooperation, there are still more exciting projects.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 246.
 

September 1970

September 2, 1970: NASA FY 1971 interim operating plan news conference was held. Dr. Thomas O. Paine, NASA Administrator, said principal decision was “how best to carry out the Apollo and other existing programs to realize maximum benefits from them while preserving adequate resources for the future… In our discussions, it became clear that the vitality of our national space program depends on a determined and vigorous continuation of plans for a reusable space shuttle, followed by a space station in the manned flight program… - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 284.

September 2, 1970: Manned Spacecraft Center awarded LTV Aerospace Corp. Missiles and Space Div. and McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. $215,000, fixed-price contracts to conduct six-month parallel development studies of radiative non-metallics for high-temperature heat protection on space shuttle. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 284.

September 8, 1970: Manned Spacecraft Center and North American Rockwell Corp.'s Space Div. announced selection of Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm of Munich, West Germany, and BAC of Bristol, England, to conduct subsystems studies for NASA’s space shuttle. In major step toward international cooperation in space. Messerschmitt would study attitude-control system and BAC would study structures, aerodynamics and flight-test instrumentation, and data handling under contracts financed by their governments. Work would be performed in Downey, Calif. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 292.

September 8, 1970: Three of nine USAF volunteers began test at Manned Spacecraft Center to determine man’s physiological tolerance to reentry loads expected on space shuttle missions. Subjects, whose reactions to shuttle reentry profile had been measured after 24 hrs rest September 9-11 would rest in bed seven days before riding centrifuge in “eye balls down” reentry configurations at 2.5-g to 4.5-g levels for up to 6 minutes 10 seconds to determine what effect prolonged “eye balls down” reentry acceleration would have on space shuttle crew members and passengers after long periods of weightlessness. Normal space shuttle reentry mode of straightwing shuttle produced downward through-the-head acceleration as opposed to “eye balls-in” acceleration through the chest. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 301-2.

September 19, 1970: Complex space tug NASA was planning as part of integrated space transportation system was described in Washington Evening Star by John Lannan. Tug would be assembled like “astronaut’s erector set.” It would consist of propulsion, living, cargo, and electronic control modules and could be “put together or broken down to meet any immediate need.” Tug would be used to land men on Moon for long-term stays, to push and pull large pieces of space hardware to assemble them into space stations or interplanetary vehicles, and for astronaut rescue. Tug, launched into orbit aboard shuttle, would never return to Earth. It was designed for 3-yarr, 10-mission lifetime and would be chemically re-refueled with oxygen and hydrogen replenished by tanker shuttle. NASA expected tug to deliver 27 to 31 tons of gear to lunar surface during 28-day lunar surface mission. NASA wanted vehicle to be capable of 90° orbit change and of servicing geosynchronous satellites at 35,900-km altitude. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 307.

September 22-23, 1970: Meetings were held at Marshall Space Flight Center to select requirements for main engine design of proposed space shuttle. Dr. Karl Reinhold of ELDO attended. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 313.

September 22-25, 1970: Eurospace, organization of European industries concerned with space, sponsored conference on cooperation in space in Venice, Italy. Théo Lefèvre, Belgian Minister for Scientific Policy and Planning and head of European Space Conference, reported on his September 16-17 negotiations with U.S. Government. He confirmed that, in return for European commitment to participate in development of space shuttle and related hardware, U.S. would launch European spacecraft until shuttle was available. Charge for each launch would not exceed cost of rocket and its firing. Predominant theme of conference was that reusable shuttles would substantially lessen cost of practical uses of space. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 313.

September 23, 1970: Convair engineers presented results of “Phase A” experiment module concepts study during meeting at Marshall Space Flight Center of NASA representatives and Convair Aerospace Div. of General Dynamics Corp. Meeting was also attended by French representatives of ESRO. Module would be extension of space station that could be outfitted on ground and transported into space by shuttle vehicle. Program technical director Max E. Nein said module was attractive to European scientific commmunity because country desiring to participate could either build module complete with experiment package or build experiment package for integration into U.S. module. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 313.

September 27, 1970: U.S. space program problems were described in Washington Post by Thomas O’Toole: U.S. needed to begin development of space shuttle “now, which in a way is the worst possible time for it.” Country was “weary of big new space projects, particularly while the spectacular ApoIIo project is stlll unfolding…  Also, the space agency is without an appointed administrator, which means that NASA cannot exercise its full role with Congress or the White House.” NASA managers “go on sailing a skipperless ship. But what they find more disturbing is the feeling that nobody at headquarters cares whether the ship gets a captain or not.” It was no secret that “men who run the space program are deeply disappointed in the Nixon Administration.” They felt “that the White House neither understands nor cares to understand what the space program means or what it can do for the country.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 316-7.
 

October 1970

October 1, 1970: Richard J. Allen of Space Shuttle Task Force said NASA was developing plans for shuttle with 100-mission reusable capability.  Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight Dale D. Myers said DOD was “very much involved” with shuttle activities. “We have a joint committee operating with the Air Force… for continuous communication and review of requirements.” He saw “possibility of international cooperation on certain flights and [U.S.] military use of the vehicle on others.” Myers said he had discussed with European officials possibility of participation in space shuttle program on three levels: orbit-to-orbit space tug, “cleanly separable and easily interfaced piece of equipment” that would probably be managed by European consortium and financed with European dollars; subcontracts from American companies to European contractors without transfer of American money; and use of technological contributions from European national space activities and national aircraft establishments. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 323.

October 1, 1970: Manned Spacecraft Center announced it was negotiating with Lockheed Missiles & Space Co. on $699,000 cost-plus-fixed-fee contract for 18-month study of space shuttle cryogenic systems. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 323.

October 2, 1970: NASA announced award of $380,000 contract to Ralph M. Parsons Co. for engineering services in development of overall plan for space shuttle ground facilities. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 323.

October 4, 1970: LeRoy E. Day, Manager of NASA Space Shuttle Task Group, described system characteristics of space shuttle: “It should be a fully reusable two-stage vertical take-off and horizontal landing space vehicle” that could transport 11 tons to the design reference orbit of 500 km at 55° orbital inclination. Shuttle “must have a large internal cargo bay which will give it the capability of carrying a variety of manned and unmanned payloads to low earth orbit. The large internal payload compartment will allow the shuttle to deliver to low Earth orbit both a satellite and a high energy stage for a synchronus orbit or a planetary mission. We expect the gross lift-off weight… to be approximately 1.6 million kilograms fully fueled and with the payload on-board.” Rocket engines would be one of most critical subsystems “For both the booster and the orbiter we will use high pressure hydrogen/oxygen rocket engines which can be throttled to keep the acceleration during ascent to less than 3 g’s.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 327.

October 4, 1970: Dr. George E. Mueller, General Dynamics Corp. Vice President and former NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, said U.S. space shuttle could be “golden transport” to carry passengers between any two cities on earth in an hour in 1980s. Shuttle could be converted easily to transport flying to 130-km altitude and plunging back to target city at approximately 18,500 km per hr. Rocket-boosted aircraft would take off vertically, eliminating noise problem. Other nations might purchase U.S. shuttle for $50 million.- Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 327.

October 6, 1970: Termination of manned space flight within three years was urged at Washington, D.C., press conference by four Senators and space scientists Dr. James A. Van Allen of Univ. of Iowa and Dr. Thomas Gold of Cornell Univ. Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wis.) said, “I want to shift spending from space extravaganzas to needy programs.” Sen. Clifford P. Case (R-N.J.) said, “The space shuttle … should not be allowed to go forward until the proper role of manned versus unmanned exploration has received a fuller examination than it has to date.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 330.

October 19-22, 1970: At the AIAA Seventh Annual Meeting, Dr. George M. Low, Acting NASA Administrator, said that decision to delay space shuttle would be wrong. “A delay in starting the shuttle would only delay the hiatus, not eliminate it.” If shuttle development was advancing when gap occurred, Dr. Low believed gap would not be “unacceptable.” NASA was building “the next generation of space vehicles, a generation that will far surpass existing capabilities to explore space, to use space, to live and work in space.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 341.

October 27, 1970: NASA announced reorganization of OART to improve aeronautical research and give more support of space activities. Effective immediately, NASA has created a new units to support technology in space or atmosphere which included a Shuttle Technologies Office. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 348.
 

November 1970

November 18, 1970: NASA announced that Charles J. Donlan, Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight (Technical), would also become Acting Director of Space Shuttle Task Force, replacing Dale D. Myers, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight. Appointment was effective immediately. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 373.

November 19, 1970: Marshall Space Flight Center awarded McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. $2-million, one-year modification to space shuttle study contract. Under new agreement McDonnell Douglas would recommend program to test all structural components of proposed space shuttle’s booster and orbiter craft, including verification of design and advanced state-of-the-art testing of materials, wing leading edges, and propellant tanks. Manned Spacecraft Center, which had companion space shuttle study under way, was negotiating similar amendment with NR. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 374.
 

December 1970

December 1-11, 1970: Meetings at Marshall Space Flight Center reviewed design approaches to space shuttle main engines taken by contractors, discussed potential problems in designs, and reviewed efforts to see that they were proceeding satisfactorily under same basic design requirements. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 384.

December 3, 1970: Marshall Space Flight Center issued request-for-proposal on preliminary design of Research and Applications Module (RAM) that could be used with space station and space shuttle. Proposals were due January 8, 1971. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 386.

December 3, 1970:  NASA decision to search nationwide for suitable site for launching $6-billion space shuttle had stirred “anguished complaints from Florida politicians and other proponents of Cape Kennedy,” Wall Street Journal said. But NASA experts had insisted shuttle’s unique characteristics and estimated $200-million to $400-million cost of complex ground equipment made search essential. While Cape Kennedy was “leading launch-site candidate,” other possibilities included FRC, WSMR, and Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. Essential requirement was flat area for landing shuttle, with several alternate landing locations in case of emergency. Cape Kennedy was not equipped for shuttle landings and lacked facilities to support plane-like flight through atmosphere. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 386.

December 7, 1970: Senate passed H.R. 19830, FY 1971 Independent Offices and HuD appropriations bill, which contained $3.269-billion NASA appropriation.Amendment proposed by Sen. Walter F. Mondale (D-Minn.) to eliminate funds for space shuttle and station was rejected. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 389.

December 8, 1970: Wall Street Journal editorial said Congressmen were “squabbling” over location of future NASA space shuttle base: “There’s a lot to be learned from the space shuttle, we have no doubt. The scientific results will be greatest, though, if NASA manages to locate the project where it can be managed most efficiently -- and not merely where local Congressmen are most adept at gathering spoils.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1970, p. 391.
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This 1971 artist's concept shows the Nuclear Shuttle in both its lunar logistics configuraton and geosynchronous station configuration. As envisioned by Marshall Space Flight Center Program Development persornel, the Nuclear Shuttle would deliver payloads to lunar orbits or other destinations then return to Earth orbit for refueling and additional missions. )Credit: MSFC)

In this 1971 artist's concept, the Nuclear Shuttle is shown in various space-based applications. As envisioned by Marshall Space Flight Center Program Development persornel, the Nuclear Shuttle would deliver payloads to geosychronous Earth orbits or lunar orbits then return to low Earth orbit for refueling. A cluster of Nuclear Shuttle units could form the basis for planetary missions. (Credid: MSFC)

January 1971

January 4, 1971: NASA was looking at air bases in the Carolinas, south Florida, and the Bahamas as possible landing site for space shuttle rocket launched from KSC.  NASA engineers also were considering refueling shuttle booster’s 1st stage in flight so that it could return to launch site for landing, like aircraft. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 2.

January 5, 1971: Oklahoma Governor Dewey H. Bartlett told state legislature in Oklahoma City there was good possibility that Oklahoma could become launch site for NASA space shuttle. “Based on the launch azimuth and the orbital inclinations … Oklahoma provides both a desirable launch and recovery location.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 2.

January 8, 1971: Three aerospace teams, including seven European firms interested in support roles, submitted proposals to Marshall Space Flight Center on preliminary design of research and applications module (RAM) proposed for space shuttle and space station. Proposals were submitted by McDonnell Douglas Corp., General Dynamics Corp., and General Electric Co. Team headed by General Dynamics would include MATRA of France, ERNO of Germany, SAAB of Sweden, Hawker Siddeley of U.K., and Fiat of Italy. General Electric team would include Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm of Germany and Thompson-CSF of France. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 3.

January 25, 1971: Newsweck commented on “shrinking space shuttle.” U.S. space program had been “hit with another budgetary broadside.” Space shuttle to service planned space station “will get no more than a third of the money its designers insist they need to build it.” Original request for $300 million had been cut by NASA to $225 million. “Now White House budgeteers have shrunk it to $105 million, and it has yet to face the anti-technology faction in Congress.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 15.

January 26, 1971: International aspects of U.S. space program were discussed by Dr. George M. Low, Acting NASA Administrator. U.S. wished “to build a foundation for important benefit, and cost-sharing in the major space programs of the future.” Canada, Japan, and Australia -- “countries having the most obvious potential for post-Apollo work-sharing” -- had been given “every chance to [16] become fully acquainted with our plans and studies” to enable them to decide whether they wished to commit their own resources. European Space Conference had put several million dollars into studies of post-Apollo program possibilities and some member countries had invested still larger amounts. British, French, and West German firms were working with NASA prime contractors on space shuttle design studies. Europe would have to choose between significant participation in shuttle funding and funding independent European rocket program. Decision would be necessary “even if Europe funds only 10 per cent of the shuttle’s price tab.” Since Europe was talking of only 10% share of shuttle program, “we said that we would retain decision-making responsibility except where European costs were directly affected, in which case decisions would be joint.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 16-7.

January 29, 1971: President Nixon sent $229.2-billion FY 1972 budget request to Congress, including total science R&D budget of $16.7 billion. Total request for NASA new obligational authority (NOA) of $3.271 billion (1.4% of total U.S. budget) was $27 million less than FY 1971 NOA of $3.298 billion. Manned space flight operations would include $535.4 million for Skylab, $100.0 million for space shuttle, and $37.4 million for orbital systems and experiments. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 20.
        Dr. George M. Low, NASA Acting Administrator, said: NASA had asked for $190 million for space shuttle in FY 1972. “We have included in our budget $100 million. This reduction means essentially that we will move out with the engine development exactly as we had planned; that we are still in a position to make a decision after we have completed the studies on the air frame development, whether to continue with additional design or whether to proceed with the development of the air frames.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 22.
 

February 1971

February 11-12: Delegation from 11-nation European Space Conference met at Dept. of State with State Dept., NASC, and NASA officials to continue discussion of possible cooperation in post-Apollo space program, particularly space shuttle and space station. Conference President Theo Lefevre, Belgian Minister for Scientific Policy and Planning, in address raised question of availability to European nations of U.S. launchers if European collaboration in post-Apollo projects failed to materialize, or materialized to smaller degree than U.S. requested. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 45.

February 20, 1971: National Urban Coalition released Cozmterbudget A Blueprint for Changing National Priorities, 1971-1976. Report noted diminishing public support for science and technology. Space program should be kept at funding level just over $3 billion, rather than $5.9-billion level reached in 1966. Space shuttle and station programs should be continued but on stretched schedule. Mars mission should be undertaken only when it could be done internationally. Value of space program as whole lay in its scientific yield, practical results, and national leadership. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 50-1.
 

March 1971

March 1, 1971: NASA announced selection of Mississippi Test Facility near New Orleans, La., as site for sea-level testing of space shuttle rocket engines. Testing under simulated altitude conditions would be done at USAF’s Arnold Engineering Development Center at Tullahoma, Tenn. Test program would include some 1,200 development and acceptance tests from 1973 through 1979, with 45 to 50 sustaining engineering tests per year afterward, and some 100 development tests under simulated altitude conditions from 1974 through 1976. Space shuttle engine would be reusable, high-performance, high-chamber-pressure engine using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. First stage would be larger than J-2 engine in Saturn V, with 249 500- kg thrust. Orbiter stage engine would have extendable nozzle skirt for use in space. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 60.

March 1, 1971: Marshall Space Flight Center issued Request for Proposals to Aerojet-General Liquid Rocket Co., United Aircraft Corp. Pratt & Whitney Div., and North American Rockwell Corp.'s Rocketdyne Div. on development of main engines for two-stage reusable launch vehicle (space shuttle). Companies had been performing preliminary design and definition studies of shuttle under independent, $6-rnillion, parallel contracts since June 1970. In June 1971 one company would be chosen to develop engine. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 60.

March 3, 1971:  Dr. George M. Low, Acting NASA Administrator, declared: … “Five years ago there were over 390,000 people in industry employed on NASA work. By the end of fiscal year 1971 that figure will be about 108,000. The decline will continue for a few more months, but we expect it to start increasing by the middle of fiscal year 1972, with the end-of-the-year total being about equal to that at the beginning.” U.S. was “running a serious risk of losing too much of the [61] aerospace capability that is an essential ingredient of our long term national strength and security.” [...]  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 60-1.

March 3, 1971: Dr. Wernher von Braun, Deputy Associate Administrator for Planning, said:“Preliminary analysis indicates that if the shuttle is used in lieu of current expendable systems, the transportation costs will be reduced by at least a factor of ten… Only by an investment now will we be able to have operational an economical transportation system by the end of the 1970’s to support a vigorous and balanced space flight program.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 63-4.

March 4, 1971: During past year, definition of space shuttle was nearing completion, reports Dale D. Myers, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 64.

March 9, 1971: Dr. John E. Naugle, NASA Associate Administrator for Space Science and Applications, reports that hey feature of science, exploration, and applications revolution would be reusable space shuttle “that makes access to space for man and machines an economical, routine excursion rather than the difficult task it presents now.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 67.

March 15-18: AIAA Space Shuttle Development, Testing, and Operations Conference/NASA Space Shuttle Technology Conference was held in Phoenix, Ariz. Charles J. Donlan, Deputy Associate Administrator (Technical), OMSF, said NASA plans called for unmanned testing of reusable space shuttle beginning in 1976 and manned tests in 1977. Fully operational vehicle would be ready in 1979.
Col. John G. Albert, USAF Director of Space Operations, said DOD was “putting its faith in the shuttle and as a result we are not developing any other space rocket beyond the present Titan 3. We intend to use the shuttle for all military space operations.” Use would include communications, navigation, weather-watching, and surveillance. Shuttle would place military satellites in orbit and perform specialized missions in orbit for periods up to seven days. Col. Albert told news conference later that DOD would “certainly make a sizable funding contribution at the proper time” to assist NASA in shuttle development. To be useful to the military, shuttle must be able to operate like jet transport with quick turnaround on runway after conventional landing. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 75.

March 18, 1971: House voted 215 to 204 to end Federal funding for SST development. It was first time in seven years that House had voted against measure though it had passed House in 1970 by only 20 votes.
March 24, 1971: Senate voted 51 to 46 to cut off all Federal funding for SST, apparently ending controversial project. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 78 & 80.

March 23, 1971: Dr. George M. Low, Acting NASA Administrator, testified: “We have recently settled on a single set of performance characteristics for the preliminary design of the two-stage fully reusable [space] shuttle. Alternate approaches are also still under study. We expect to be in a position to make decisions this summer on how we will proceed with airframe design or development in FY 1972. The $100 million recommended in the FY 1972 budget will support, in addition to the engine development, either continued intensive design studies and related efforts or the initiation of airframe development.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 80.

March 29, 1971: Editorial in Aviation Week & Space Technology commented on rejection by Government of further SST funding: “The fate of the SST should serve notice … that the aerospace industry can no longer survive with its political naivete and aloofness from the fray.” It was “sad day when a deliberate national decision is made to abandon a major frontier of technological advance. But it will be even sadder when the victors in this significant debate gird for their next assault on the space shuttle program.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 85.

March 30, 1971: Dale D. Myers, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, reports that the FY 1972 request for space shuttle of $100 million would provide for broad spectrum of studies, including analysis of new alloys and promising external materials for thermal protection; test demonstrations of design concepts for structures; wind-tunnel tests to define aerodynamic heating, launch aerodynamics, etc.; design of long-leadtime hardware, subsystems, and test devices; initiation of scaled model for flight tests; dynamics testing; electronic-data-bus-system demonstration testing; and integration of upgraded fuel-cell electrical power subsystem with other components for proof-of-concept testing.  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 87.

March 30, 1971: Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Secretary of the Air Force, testified that, in conjunction with NASA studies, USAF was analyzing defense applications of space shuttle to provide better insight into utility of concept for DOD. USAF was providing NASA with data to help ensure that configuration was of maximum utility to DOD. NASA and USAF had worked jointly on engine development. Air Force “has supported advanced development efforts on liquid rocket engines in the past, and more recently concluded a hydrogen/oxygen high performance engine demonstration program.” Engine, XLR-129, had “provided the basis for selection of the reusable high pressure rocket engine concept for the shuttle. It also provided design data for a 1,100-kilonewton thrust engine which supports the current shuttle engine design concepts.”  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 87.
 

April 1971

April 1, 1971: Dr. George M. Low, Acting NASA Administrator, summarized reasons NASA proposed space shuttle development as top space priority for 1970s: U.S.  “should and will continue an active space program from now on” and new approach was needed to make space “practical and economical” for all users: NASA, DOD, other Government agencies, and commercial enterprises. Reusable shuttle, “entirely new concept in space operation,” would deliver and retrieve manned and unmanned payloads; “we will be able to repair, modify, or update payloads in orbit and … reduce drastically the costs of payloads by taking advantage of the much larger weight and volume that will be available… When future space programs using the shuttle are compared with those using conventional launch vehicles, the shuttle offers a very real economic advantage.”
        Shuttle development should proceed in FY 1972 because necessary technology was available, delay in development would widen existing four-year gap in U.S. manned space flight schedule, and shuttle was “keystone to the total plan for the U.S. space program.”
        NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight Dale D. Myers discussed candidate concepts for space shuttle: “The principle objective in examining various systems is to determine which systems have the greatest potential for low operational costs together with low development costs. The most attractive system … is the fully reusable system where nothing is discarded in the course of the flight and the orbiter and booster are ‘turned around’ with minimum maintenance for reuse. This concept has been the subject of intense ‘phase B’ definition studies over … the past 9 months.”  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 93.

April 6, 1971: Space Shuttle Technology conference at Marshall Space Flight Center discussed space vehicle propulsion systems with operational life requirements of 100 flight missions.  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 98.

April 12, 1971: NASA announced award of $2-million one-year, fixed-price contract to General Dynamics Corp. Convair Div. for definition and preliminary design of Research and Applications Module (RAM) that could be attached to space shuttle. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 101.

April 18, 1971: Manned Spacecraft Center announced issuance of request-for-proposals for development of human waste collection and storage system for space shuttle orbiter stage. Contractor would receive $90,000, cost-plus-fixed-fee contract under which firm would fabricate for testing one fully functional unit that could be used individually during week-long test by team of three men and one woman. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 105.

April 20, 1971: Marshall Space Flight Center announced award of $1,081,343 contract to Research, Inc., to design, fabricate, install, and check out electrical heating devices for space shuttle prototype heat protection systems. Device would be installed in an existing structural test facility at Marshall Space Flight Center and would heat up to 1600 K on lower surface and 1300 K on top surface of test articles. Work on device would be funded in increments, beginning with $100,000 for preliminary design phase. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 106.
 

May 1971

May 10, 1971; Dr. James C. Fletcher held first press conference as NASA Administrator. He stated that he was “great supporter of the shuttle,” and had been “for many years before coming to NASA.” With development of shuttle, or “a cheap transfer system to orbit … it’ll open up all kinds of new things you can do in space. Since the costs will be much less -- the costs per launch will be so much less. That is, all kinds of new applications, all kinds of new science programs, new manned, near-earth programs, almost anything you can think of can be done much cheaper once you have the shuttle developed.” With sufficient funds, NASA would probably pursue space station. “But in my judgment, if you have to decide between the shuttle and the space station, you pick the shuttle first because you have to have that for the second.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 126-7.
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This 1971 artist's concept shows a Nuclear Shuttle and an early Space Shuttle docked with an Orbital Propellant Depot. As envisioned by Marshall Space Flight Center Program Development persornel, an orbital modular propellant storage depot, supplied periodically by the Space Shuttle or Earth-to-orbit fuel tankers, would be critical in making available large amounts of fuel to various orbital vehicles and spacecraft. (Credit: MSFC)

May 14, 1971: Manned Spaceflight Center announced issuance of Request-for-proposals on $400,000 design study of space shuttle auxiliary propulsion system. Study would define oxygen-hydrogen system compatible for use in both booster and orbital vehicles. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 132.

May 16, 1971: Manned Spaceflight Center announced issuance of RFPS for technological development of new surface materials that could stand environmental extremes expected to be experienced by space shuttle. MSC would award fixed-price contract to company that designed and developed best ceramic insulator.  - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 132.

May 22, 1971: Future space shuttle missions were described by Dale D. Myers, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight: “These payloads cover the areas of space physics, astronomy, space applications, life sciences, unmanned planetary exploration, and Earth resources, military and commercial.” Payloads ranged from 113-kg Explorer and Space Physics Satellites to 9,100-kg astronomy mission requiring annual revisits by the shuttle for servicing maintenance and updating of instrumentation.” Sortie flights conducted solely by shuttle could be made within its seven-day orbit capability. Scientist could “conduct his own experiment in the orbiting shuttle and return with the data as well as his own observations. When the space station becomes operational, crew rescue missions could also be flown.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 140.

May 26, 1971: RAND Corp. report The Space Shuttle as an Element in the National Space Program (RM 6244-1PR) completed in October 1970, questioned economic feasibility of NASA’s reusable space shuttle program.  Undertaken for USAF, the study concluded “total space funding requirements over the next 20 years are not significantly different for plans that use the shuttle and those that accomplish the same missions without the shuttle.” Results indicated “that criteria other than cost should be used to evaluate the desirability of the space transport system.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 145.

May 26, 1971: Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wis.) on Senate floor questioned need for space shuttle and space station: “I have written to NASA on a number of occasions to ask whether … there is a need for the space shuttle/space station. All NASA has told me in reply is that first, the shuttle would enable us to continue to have an active space program, and second, it would reduce the costs of the space program. But why do we actually need it? What would it help us to accomplish that we could not otherwise accomplish? NASA seemingly has no answer to these questions.” - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 135-6.
 

June  1971

June 3, 1971: House rejected amendment that would have eliminated $125 million for space shuttle system. - Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 132.

June 8, 1971: Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, in passing NASA FY 1972 authorization bill, deleted additional $25 million House had voted for space shuttle. -Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 157 ; 

June 10, 1971: Management plan for space shuttle program were announced by NASA Hq. in Washington, D.C. Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF) would be responsible for overall management, including assignment of responsibilities, basic performance requirements, control of major milestones, and funding allocations to NASA centers. Dale D. Myers, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, had assigned responsibility for program control, overall systems engineering and systems integration, and overall responsibility for definition of elements of total system that interacted with other elements to Manned Spaceflight Center [Houston], which also would be responsible for shuttle’s orbiter stage. Marshall Space Flight Cetner would be responsible for booster stage and shuttle’s main engines. Kennedy Spaceflight Center would be responsible for design of launch and recovery facilities. All three centers would station personnel at MSC for systems engineering and integration activity. -Astronautics And Aeronautics, 1971, p. 160 ; 
 

July  1971

 

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This early chart conceptualizes the use of two parallel Solid Rocket Motor Boosters in conjunction with three main engines to launch the proposed Space Shuttle to orbit. At approximately twenty-five miles altitude, the boosters would detach from the Orbiter and parachute back to Earth where they would be recovered and refurbished for future use. The Shuttle was designed as NASA's first reusable space vehicle, launching vertically like a spacecraft and landing on runways like conventional aircraft. Marshall Space Flight Center had management responsibility for the Shuttle's propulsion elements, including the Solid Rocket Boosters. (Source: MSFC)
 
 
 

January 1972

(C( Claude Lafleur, 2013