Discoverer 9 / CORONA 9006 / KH-1 #6 Spacecraft:  (Included SRV 113 & TOD-1 (Transit-On-Discoverer) payloads.) Chronologies: 1960 payload #1 ; 1960 1st loss ; 56th spacecraft. Type: Reconnaissance Achievements: 5th Discoverer launch failure, 10th mission failure in 10th attempt. Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 4 February 1960 at 18h52 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Barse's LC-75-3-4, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 4 February 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer IX failed to orbit from Vandenberg AFB. (A&A, 1961)       “Particularly emphasized was the Discoverer satellite program, testing components, propulsion, and guidance systems and techniques to be utilized in various U.S. space projects. Capsule recovery is foremost among techniques being studied.“ (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Discoverer 9 was a first-generation (KH-1), low-resolution surveillance satellite. The mission failed following a premature cutoff of the first stage of the launcher, marking the 10th consecutive failure.      The KH-1 (Keyhole-1) program was the first attempt in the Corona-program to develop an optical reconnaissance satellite. The KH-1 payload consisted of a single C (Corona) panoramic camera, which had a ground resolution of 12.9 metres, and a single Satellite Return Vehicle (SRV). The spacecraft was based on the Agena A upper stage, which provided attitude control in orbit. According to the NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive (NSSDC): “Primary goal of the Discoverer program was to develop a film-return photographic surveillance satellite to assess how rapidly the Soviet Union was producing long-range bombers and ballistic missiles and where they were being deployed. It was part of the secret Corona program which was also used to produce maps and charts for the Department of Defense and other U.S. government mapping programs. The goal of the program was not revealed to the public at the time, it was presented as a program to orbit large satellites to test satellite subsystems and investigate the communication and environmental aspects of placing humans in space, including carrying biological packages for return to Earth  The program documents were declassified in 1995. The Discoverer program was managed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense and the U.S. Air Force.” Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's DISC9 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vi, 24 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 119 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 67 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1259 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-1 Corona ;

Discoverer 10 / CORONA 9007 / KH-1 #7 Spacecraft:  (Included SRV 110 &TOD-2 (Transit-On-Discoverer) payloads.) Chronologies: 1960 payload #2 ; 1960 2nd loss ; 57th spacecraft. Type: Reconnaissance Achievements: 6th Discoverer launch failure, 11th mission failure in 11th attempt. Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 19 February 1960 at 20h15 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-5, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 19 February 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer X, launched but did not attain orbit. (A&A, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Discoverer 10 was a first-generation (KH-1), low-resolution photo surveillance satellite. It was destroyed by Range Safety before reaching orbit: the rocket had veered off course shortly after takeoff and was detonated by ground command at an altitude of 6 km, 56 seconds after launch. (See KH-1 program note above.) Source: Jonathan Space Report'aster List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's DISC10 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. 24 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 119 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 67 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1259 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-1 Corona ;

Discoverer 11 / CORONA 9008 / KH-1 #8 Spacecraft: (Included SRV 103 and TOD-3 (Transit-On-Discoverer).) Chronologies: 1960 payload #10 ; 1960-004A (1960 Delta 1) ; 65th spacecraft, 32nd space object catalogued. Type: Reconnaissance Achievements: 6th Discoverer orbited but no recovered, 12th mission failure in 12th attempt Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 15 April 1960 at 20h31 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-5, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: 175 km x 612 km x 80.1° x 92.25 min. A&A 170 km x 589 km x 80.4° x 92.16 min. ESAM 170 km x 589 km x 80.1° x 92.2 min. USCSP 170 km x 589 km x 80.1° x 92.3 min. TRW  166 km x 603 km x 80.4° x 92.20 min. Wade Deorbited: 26 April 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XI launched and stayed in orbit, reentry capsule was not recovered. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XI was a cylinder, 5.85 metres long, 1.5 metre, weighting 770 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview:  Discoverer 11 was a first-generation (KH-1), low-resolution photo surveillance satellite. It was successfully orbited but, following attitude control system malfunction, its film capsule recovery failed. (See KH-1 program note above.) Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-004A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vii ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 122 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 68 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1259 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-1 Corona ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

Korabl Sputnik 1 (Sputnik 4) Spacecraft:  Vostok-1P Koralb Sputnik means ‘satellite ship’, and the mission was also nicknamed Sputnik 4 in the West. Chronologies: 1960 payload #13 ; 1960-005A (1960 Epsilon 1) ; 68th spacecraft, 34th space object catalogued. Type: Piloted spaceship test Significant achievements: •  1st test flight of the Vostok piloted spaceship (uncrewed). •  1st satellite ever orbited large enough to carry a human passenger. •  Thought to be the 1st attempt by the Soviet Union to recover a spacecraft from space (failed). • Note: at that time, we were just 11 months prior to the first piloted spaceflight: Yuri Gagarin’s Vostok flight. Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) Launch: 15 May 1960 at 0h00 UT, from Baykonur Cosmodrome's LC-1, by an A-1/"Vostok".  Orbit: 303.3 km x 464.5 km x 64.9° x 91.1 min. A&A 312 km x 369 km x 65.0° x 91.2 min. ESAM 312 km x 369 km x 65.0° x 91.2 min. SSP 290 km x 765 km x 65.0° x 91.3 min. TRW  284 km x 514 km x 65.0° x 92.50 min. Wade Decayed: 5 September 1962. ('Sputnik 4') 15 October 1965 (Sputnik 4 cabin) Mission: Historical reports: ‘Spacecraft I,’ weighing 4,500 kg launched by the U.S.S.R., the first successful effort to orbit a vehicle large enough to contain a human passenger, although efforts to recover the space capsule failed. (A&A, 1961) * * * *      By adapting the A-l vehicle, earlier used for direct ascent flights to the Moon, the Soviet Union was able to create an Earth orbital system which could carry at least 4,700 kg to low orbit. This found its first successful use on May 15, 1960 with the launch of Korabl Sputnik 1. It was described as weighing 4,540 kg consisting of 1,477 kg of instruments and equipment and a self-sustaining biological cabin of 2,500 kg. In the cabin was the dummy of a man with characteristics of body construction and function like a man, designed to check on the operation of the life support system and stresses of flight. The ship radioed both extensive telemetry and also pre-recorded voice communications. The Russians some years later told how they wanted to avoid Western claims that they had flown a man on this mission and lost him, so rather than taping a pilot's voice sending typical flight data, they in stalled the tape of a Russian choral group singing. After four days of flight, the reentry cabin was separated from its service module and retrorockets were fired. Unfortunately, the attitude was incorrect, for the cabin moved to a higher orbit, and it was five years before it finally decayed from orbit. (SSP, 1976) * * * * * Current overview: The first piloted spaceship ever launched: a 4,540-kg craft (including 2.5 tons capsule) containing a "dummy" spaceman. The primary goal of the mission was to test the basic elements of the vessel, in particular the complex Chayka orientation system, which would put the spacecraft in the proper attitude for reentry. This first Vostok 1 spacecraft was a subvariant designated the 1KP (or Vostok 1P), with the "p" denoting that it was a simple ("prostoy") spacecraft not designed to be recovered from orbit. The spacecraft had no thermal shielding for the spherical descent apparatus and no life support system. Instead of the large ejection seat that would carry a pilot, it carried a mock-up of the contraption to simulate the correct loads. Unlike later Vostok spacecraft, two solar panels shaped like semicircles were installed on a boom heading out forward from the descent apparatus. This system, designated Luch ("ray"), would provide power to the spacecraft as an experiment to evaluate the effectiveness of solar power over chemical batteries. Although the vehicle would burn up on reentry, telemetry data would indicate whether the spacecraft had been properly angled. Total spacecraft mass was 4,540 kilograms. As soon as the spacecraft reach orbit, it was simply designated Korabl-Sputnik ("satellite-ship") and there was no indication that the mission had any relevance to a piloted space effort.       Planned to last three or four days, the flight proceeded without incident, with successful tests of the electrical and power source systems. Reentry was scheduled for the early morning of May 19. Prior to the scheduled firing of the TDU-1 engine, the control group detected anomalies in the primary system of attitude control, which used the infrared sensor. Although the system as a whole seemed to be functioning fine, the sensor itself was not responding correctly. On the sixty-fourth orbit. the primary system malfunctioned, and the fourteen thrusters inserted the spacecraft into a wrong attitude. The TDU-1 retrorocket automatically fired on time at 2h52 hours Moscow Time, but instead of reentering the atmosphere, the spaceship was boosted into a higher orbit. Its descent capsule decayed more than five years later.  Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-005A ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 123 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 68 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Program 1971-75, 1976, p. 174, 554 ; A Siddiqi, Challenge To Apollo (NASA SP-2000-4408), p. 251-2 ; Sven Grahn's The flight of Sputnik-4 ; Gunter's Vostok-1KP; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

Discoverer 12 / CORONA R&D / KH-1 Spacecraft:  CORONA Diagnostic 1 Chronologies: 1960 payload #17 ; 1960 8th loss ; 72nd spacecraft. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: 7th Discoverer launch failure, 13th mission failure in 13th attempt. Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 29 June 1960 at 22h01 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-4, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: None. 13 May 1960 29 June 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XII failed to go into polar orbit. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XII was a cylinder, 5.85 metres long, 1.5 metre in diameter, and weighing 770 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Following 12 consecutive failures, Discoverer 12 was designed to develop and improve launching techniques, propulsion, communications, and orbital performance and to conduct advanced engineering tests, including separation, deceleration, reentry through the atmosphere, and recovery from the sea of an instrument package. The cylindrical Agena A stage carried a telemetry system, tape recorder, receivers for command signals from the ground, a horizon scanner, and a 136-kg package that included a recovery capsule with recovery aids, retrorockets, and telemetry equipment to measure its performance. The payload was identical to that of Discoverer 8, with the addition of a doppler beacon and external lights installed on the Agena A casing for tracking purposes. It did not carry camera. But, again, this 790-kg Discoverer failed to rech orbit, when the Agena-A attitude control failed. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's DISC12 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vii ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 124 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 6/ ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1260 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's Discoverer 2, 3, 12, 13 ;

Korabl Sputnik Spacecraft:  Vostok-1 no. 1 Chronologies: 1960 payload #18 ; 1960 9th loss ; 73rd spacecraft. Type: Piloted spaceship test Significant achievements: •  2nd test of the Vostok piloted spaceship (failure). •  1st piloted capsule equipped to be recovered. •  Carried two dogs, which were killed seconds after liftoff. • Note: if it had been a man onboard this spaceship, he probably wouldn’t had no chance to escape. •  Another Soviet mission kept in secret for decades. Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) ; 49th failure. Launch: 28 July 1960 at 9h31 UT, from Baykonur Cosmodrome's LC-1, by an A-1/"Vostok". (Formerly: launched by a SL-3 from Tyuratam.) Orbit: None. Destroyed: 28 July 1960. Mission: Historical reports: This second flight test of the Vostok spaceship, and first launch failure, was totally unknown at the time, and  even a reference report like the Soviet Space Program 1971-75, published in 1976, had no knowledge of it. * * * * * Current overview: Second test of a Vostok 1 manned spacecraft. While having the old set of orientation systems, this spacecraft was far more advanced than its modest predecessor (Korabl Sputnik 1), since it was equipped with an operational life support system and a means of recovery. Two dogs, Chayka and Lisichka, were trained to fly into orbit on board. The test went awry right from the beginning: just nineteen seconds after launch, the booster began "to fork to one side" as a result of a fire and a breakdown of the combustion chamber in one of the strap-on engines (in Blok G). The inert strap-on broke away from the main vehicle, and the booster eventually exploded into pieces 28,5 seconds after lift-off. Although the descent apparatus separated from the stack, the explosion killed both passengers. (At ignition one of the combustion chambers in strap on Block B or G burned through. The strap on separated from the core at 17 seconds into the flight and the launch vehicle exploded at 28.5 seconds. Failed Stage: 0.) Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 67 ; A. Siddiqi, Challenge To Apollo (NASA SP-2000-4408), p. 252 ; Sven Grahn's The flight of Sputnik-5, a.k.a. Korabl-Sputnik 2 ; Gunter's Vostok-1K ;

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Discoverer 13 / CORONA R&D / KH-1 Spacecraft: CORONA Diagnostic 2 Chronologies: 1960 payload #20 ; 1960-008A (1960 Theta 1) ; 75th spacecraft, 48th space object catalogued. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  1st successful Discoverer mission (after 13 failures). •  1st man-made object recovered from space. •  1st important ‘space first’ scored by the United States. Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 10 August 1960 at 20h38 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-5, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: 259 km x 702 km x 82°51’ x 94.1 min. A&A 259 km x 701 km x 82.85° x 94.04 min. ESAM 258 km x 683 km x 82.9° x 94.0 min. USCSP 258 km x 683 km x 82.8° x 94.1 min. TRW  258 km x 683 km x 82.8° x 94.00 min. Wade Decayed: 14 November 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XIII launched successfully into a polar orbit. On 11 August, its 40-kg Instrumented capsule became the first man-made object ever recovered from space, when it was recovered from the ocean off Hawaii after 18 orbits. Silken 50-star American flag it carried was presented to the President on 15 August. (A&A, 1961)      On August 11, the U.S. recovered from the Pacific Ocean a Discoverer capsule that had been in orbit about a day. This event marked the first time that any nation had successfully recovered a man-made object after it had orbited the earth. The capsule was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. An American flag taken from the payload was donated to the Eisenhower Memorial Museum, Abilene, Kan.  Discoverer XIII was a cylinder, 5.85 metres long, 1.5 metre in diameter, and weighing 770 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Discoverer 13 was a 850-kg satellite designed to test spacecraft engineering techniques and to attempt reentry through the atmosphere, and recovery from the sea of an instrument package. It represented the first-ever successful recovery of an object from orbit. The Agena A stage carried a telemetry system, a tape recorder, receivers for command signals from the ground, a horizon scanner, and a 55-kg recovery capsule that contained an American flag. It carried no camera. The capsule was bowl-shaped, 56 cm in diameter and 69 cm deep. A 18-kg monitoring system in the capsule reported on selected events, such as firing of the retrorocket, jettisoning of the heat shield, and others.      On 11 August 19610, after 17 orbits, a command was sent from a ground station on Kodiak Island to the spacecraft to start the recovery sequence. The Agena pitched down 60 degrees and the recovery vehicle was ejected. A retrorocket fired, reducing the velocity by about 1,500 km/h. At 15 km, a small parachute was deployed, a radio beacon and strobe lights were activated, and the heat shield was relelased. After stabilization, a larger parachute was deployed. The capsule splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, 610 km north-north-west of Honolulu. The Haiti Victory, a Navy ship, sent out a helicopter which dropped frogmen into the water to attach a collar to the capsule for helicopter retrieval. It was brought back to the ship and taken to Pearl harbor. The U.S. flag was presented to President Eisenhower on 15 August 1960. The Agena  stage reentered the atmosphere and burned up on 14 November 1960. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-008A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vii, 24 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 125 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 98 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1260 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's Discoverer 2, 3, 12, 13 ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Echo 1 Spacecraft:  A-11 (11th NASA's Application satellite project) Chronologies: 1960 payload #21 ; 1960-009A (1960 Iota 1) ; 76th spacecraft, 49th space object catalogued. Type: Communications Significant achievements: •  1st communications satellite (succesfully launched). •  1st ‘passive’ communications satellite: its aluminized surface served as a reflector to radio waves. •  As a 30-metre balllon, most visible and largest satellite launched to date. •  1st Delta rocket's successful flight (2nd attempt). Sponsor: NASA Launch: 12 August 1960 at 9h40 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-17A, by a Delta DM-19. Orbit: 1,520 km x 1,688 km x 47.2° x 118.3 min. A&A 1,520 km x 1,687 km x 47.22° x 118.22 min. ESAM 1,524 km x 1,684 km x 47.2° x 118.2 min. USCSP 1,524 km x 1,684 km x 47.2° x 118.2 min. TRW  966 km x 2,157 km x 47.3° x 117.30 min. Wade Decayed: 24 May 1968. Mission: Historical reports: Echo I, the first passive communications satellite, successfully launched. It reflected a radio message from the President across the Nation, thus demonstrating the feasibility of global radio communications via satellites. The 30-metre-diameter aluminized Mylar-plastic sphere was the most visible and largest satellite launched to date. On 17 August, Echo I was visible to skywatchers and provided reflection for numerous long-range radio tranamissions by private and governmental research agencies in the United States. On 18 August, the satellite was utilized for tram-Atlantic communications when carrier signal was received by the French Telecommunications Establishment (CNET), Subsequently, voice and music transmissions were received by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank and other British Installations. On 19 August, a wirephoto of President Eisenhower was transmitted from Cedar Rapids, Iowa, to Dallas, Tex., via Echo I. On 22 August, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory reported that solar pressure was pushing Echo I's perigee 2.5 km closer to Earth every 24 hours. On 23 August, Bell Laboratory technicians successfully transmitted a voice and music message from New Jersey to Jodrell Bank, England, via Echo I. On 24 August, Echo I first went into Earth's shadow with its two tracking beacons still operating. Since going into orbit on 12 August, it had relayed hundreds of telephonic experiments and transmissions. On 9 November, Post Office Department transmitted a "speed mail" letter from Washington to Newark, N.J., by bouncing microwave transmission off Echo 1. Goddard Space Flight Center scientists, Robert Jastrow and Robert Bryant, reported that atmospheric drag acting on Echo I during the severe solar storm of November 12 was Increased by about a factor of two. Scientists had previously noted the rise and fall of the density of the upper atmosphere, and the heating effect of a solar flare had been noted on the orbit of Sputnik III in 1959. (A&A, 1961)      On 12 August 1963, third birthday of Echo I balloon satellite, world’s first artificial passive communications satellite. The 30-metre inflatable mylar sphere demonstrated use of radio wave reflection for global communications. It was still orbiting the Earth, having traveled some 680 million km, and was still usable for communication.      On its fourth birthday (1964), the builders of Echo 1 (G. T. Schjeldahl Co.,) reports that the satellite’s supply of gas had long ago leaked out through holes made by micrometeoroids, but even so, Echo I had “demonstrated the practicability of employing large inflatabIe and erectable reflectors to rebound intelligent signals beamed at it.”      On 6 September 1964, NASA announced Echo I had been used this summer by French National Geographic Institute to accurately locate satellite tracking stations being built for France and ESRO across Europe and Africa. According to reports, French National Geographic Institute photographed Echo I simultaneously from precisely located cameras in France and Algeria, in order to join the triangulation systems of France and Algeria. Its aluminum-coated mylar skin wrinkled and misshapen, Echo I was no longer useful in radio-reflecting communications, but it was still clearly visible in the nighttime sky after more than four years of orbiting the earth.      On 14 December 1964, NASA designer of Echo I, William J. O’Sullivan, said he believed the satellite still had its spherical shape after over four years in orbit. An optical inyestigation made by the Goodyear Aerospace corp. for NASA Langley Research Center indicated that the satellite’s aluminum surface -- which made the balloon highly reflective of light and radar waves, regulated its temperature, and protected the plastic film from space hazards -- still reflected like a mirror. From calculations using the known reflective characteristics of Echo I when it was launched and his interpretation of the Goodyear measurements, O’Sullivan concluded that Echo I “is still essentially spherical and that its very thin coating of aluminum has sufkered no measurable degradation in specularity or reflectivity.” * * * * * Echo I was the world's first successful passive communications or "radio mirror" satellite. It was part of NASA's program to investigate the feasibility of satellites for global communications including worldwide telephone, radio, and television. Such satellites may eventually lead to worldwide “live“ TV broadcasts.  The satellite was a 30-metre-diameter, inflatable sphere of aluminized Mylar plastic, weighing 62 kg and contained an additional 13.5 kg of subliming chemicals to inflate it.      During its first orbit, scientists transmitted President Eisenhower’s tape-recorded voice from California to New Jersey, via the sphere. Since then, numerous communications experiments have been conducted. Transmissions have included teletype signals, facsimile photographs, two-way telephone conversations using commercial equipment, trans-continental and trans-Atlantic signal relays, and experiments to learn more about the effects of the ionosphere upon radio signals.      Among Echo Its notable "firsts" have been: relay of President Eisenhower's tape-recorded voice from California to New Jersey; relay of the first transoceanic radar signal (from Trinidad, B.W.I.F., to Floyd, N.Y.); first relay of a trans-Atlantic wireless-code radio transmission; first relay of wire-photo transmissions; and first relay of a trans-Atlantic voice message. Other transmissions have included relaying of teletype signals, facsimile photographs, two-way telephone conversations using standard commercial equipment, and experiments to learn more about the effects of the ionosphere on radio signals.       At dusk when the balloon-shaped satellite is in sunlight and passes overhead it is clearly visible as a star-like body, about as bright as Vega. Hence it has been viewed by hundreds  of thousands of observers in both hemispheres.(USASA, 1961)      On 12 August 1965, Echo had traveled more than 1,060 million kilometres and circled the Earth more than 22,600 times. Orbital data: apogee, 1,875.7 km; perigee, 901.6 km; period, 113 min. The satellite had demonstrated that large inflatable spheres could be used as passive communications reflectors in space.  * * * * * Current overview: Echo 1 was a  180-kg (or 56-kg or 76-kg), 30.48-metre-diameter balloon designed as a passive communications reflector for transcontinental and intercontinental telephone, radio, and television signals. (It also had beacon transmitters for telemetry purposes.) Because of the large area-to-mass ratio of the spacecraft, data for the calculation of atmospheric density and solar pressure could be acquired. The spacecraft was also used to evaluate the technical feasibility of satellite triangulation during the latter portion of its life. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-009A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vii, 4, 13 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 125, 126, 127, 130, ; Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1963, p.  305 ; Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1964, p. 284, 308, 418 ; Astronautics and Aeronautics 1965, p. 376 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 68 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1260 ; Gunter's Echo 1, 1A ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Discoverer 14 / CORONA 9009 / KH-1 #9 Spacecraft:  CORONA C-9 (included SRV 101 and TOD-4 Transit-On-Discoverer). Chronologies: 1960 payload #22 ; 1960-010A (1960 Kappa 1) ; 77th spacecraft, 54th space object catalogued. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  2nd successful Discoverer mission. •  2nd capsule recovery; 1st recovered in mid-air (catch by an airplane). •  1st complete KH-1 spacecraft (recovery capsule, camera and films). •  1st successful military Earth surveillance mission (‘spy’ observation); 1st recovery of film from an orbiting satellite.  Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 18 August 1960 at 19h57 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-4, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: 187 km x 808 km x 79.6° x 94.5 min. A&A 186 km x 805 km x °79.65 x 94.55 min. ESAM 186 km x 805 km x 79.6° x 94.5 min. TRW  177 km x 803 km x 79.6° x 94.40 min. Wade Decayed: 19 September 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XIV launched Into polar orbit. On 19 August, the 135-kg capsule of Discoverer XIV became the second time a man-made object was recovered intact from Earth orbit and the first midair recovery of an object from space, when USAF C-119 transport snared the capsule at 3 km altitude (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XII was a cylinder, 5.85 metres long, 1.5 metre in diameter, and weighing 770 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Discoverer 14 was the first successful low-resolution photo-surveillance spacecraft.  After completing 17 orbits, during a 725,000-km, 27-hour flight, the Agena ejected its SRV reentry vehicle, while over Alaska. The SRV slowed its trajectory to return to Earth. Down into the atmosphere, it released a parachute, which was sighted 600 km southeast of Honolulu, Hawaii, by the crew of a U.S. Air Force C-119 recovery aircraft. On the C-119's third pass over the parachute, the recovery gear trailing behind the aircraft successfully snagged the parachute canopy. The capsule was then reeled in the aircraft. This was the first successful recovery of film from an orbiting satellite (cameras operated satisfactorily) and the first aerial recovery of an object returning from Earth orbit. (Spacecraft mass: 850 kg.) Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-010A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vii ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 126 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 68 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1260 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-1 Corona ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Courier I-A Spacecraft:  Chronologies: 1960 payload #23 ; 1960 11th loss ; 78th spacecraft. Type: Communications Significant achievements: •  1st truly military communications satellite, albeit experimental (not counting Project SCORE), failed. •  4th military appiication programs (after reconnaissance, navigation and missile early warning). Sponsor: United States' DARPA Launch: 18 August 1960 at 19h58 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-17B, by a Thor-Able-Star. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 18 August 1960. Mission: Historical reports: USAF-Army COURIER IA communlcations satellite failed to orbit due to premature shutdown of first stage of Thor-Able-Star. (A&A, 1961)      Courier 1A was a 130-cm sphere weighing 225 kg. Courier was part of NOTUS, a communications system program. (See also Courier I-B below.) (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Courier 1A was a 225-kg military experimental communications satellite. The Courier were developed under the supervision of the U.S. Army’s Fort Monmouth Laboratories to test high-volume communications (up to 100,000 words per minute) to be relayed through space. This program had first been proposed by the Army Signal Corps back in September 1958, two months before the launch of the SCORE satellite. Courier 1A failed when its launcher exploded about 2.5 minutes after lift­off. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's COUR1A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. vii, x ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 126 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p.  68 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1260 ; Gunter's Courier 1A, 1B, 1C ;

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Korabl Sputnik 2 (Sputnik 5) Spacecraft:  Vostok-1 no. 2 Chronologies: 1960 payload #24 ; 1960-011A (1960 Lambda 1) ; 79th spacecraft, 55th space object catalogued. Type: Piloted spaceship test Significant achievements: •  3rd test of a Vostok piloted spaceship (unscrewed); 2nd known at the time. •  1st capsule recovered with living beings onboard (including two dogs and numerous other biological specimens); 1st recovery of animal who had flown into space. •  Strelka and Belka dogs became national heroes and put on display. •  Coincidentally, this first 24-hr., 17-orbit ‘biological’ flight occurred exactly a year earlier than the first 24-hr., 17-orbit piloted flight of Vostok 2. Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) (Artwork: Robert Giguère) Launch: 19 August 1960 at 8h44 UT, from Baykonur LC-1, by an A-1/"Vostok". Orbit: 305 km x 340 km x 64.57° x 90.72 min. A&A 306 km x 339 km x 64.95° x 90.7 min. ESAM 306 km x 339 km x 65.0° x 90.7 min. SSP 297 km x 324 km x 65.0° x 90.7 min. TRW  281 km x 340 km x 64.6° x 90.70 min. Wade Recovered: 20 August 1960 at 11h02 UT Mission: Historical reports: Spacecraft II launched into orbit by the U.S.S.R. weighing 5 tons and carrying a biological payload including two dogs. On 21 August, U.$.S.R. announced safe recovery of the biologic payloads of Spacecraft II after 17 orbits, and reported that the 2 dog passengers were in excellent physical condition. This was the first successful recovery of life forms from orbit. (A&A, 1961)      Korabl Sputnik 2 carried the dogs Strelka and Belka. This time, the period of flight was reduced to one day to minimize the risks of equipment malfunction, and recovery was successfully accomplished, for the first time in history, with the two dogs becoming national heroes and put on display, obviously healthy despite their experience. (SSP, 1976) * * * * * Current overview: Third testflight of the Vostok spaceship with a 4,600-kg craft. This third Vostok 1 test carried two dogs, Beika and Strelka, along with numerous other biological specimens. The pressurized cabin contained twelve mice, insects, plants, fungi, cultures, seeds of corn, wheat, peas, onions, microbes, strips of human skin and other specimens. In addition, there were twenty-eight mice and two white rats outside the ejection seat, but within the descent apparatus. Two internal TV cameras provided views of the dogs during the spaceflight. The spacecraft itself was fully equipped with a functioning catapult, a life support system, and parachutes. Its total mass in orbit was about 4,600 kilograms.      Upon successfully entering orbit, the spacecraft was named the "Second Korabl-Sputnik". Throughout the one-day mission, doctors continuously monitored the medical condition of the dogs while various parameters of the life support system were given a rigorous workout. The biomedical support group was able to observe the reactions of the dogs while in flight. The pictures coming back were not encouraging: initially, the dogs appeared deathly still, and without the incoming data stream on their life signs, it would have been impossible to tell if they were alive or not. Later, they became more animated, but their movements seemed convulsive. Belka squirmed and finally vomited on the fourth orbit. A number of scientific experiments were carried out during the mission, including those for the detection of cosmic rays and the monitoring of high-energy emissions in the ultraviolet and x-ray wave lengths.      Telemetry showed that the infrared orientation system had failed (as with Korabl-Sputnik 1). Engineers recommended using the backup solar orientation system. The latter performed without any anomalies on the spacecraft's eighteenth orbit, and the descent apparatus successfully entered Earth's atmosphere at the correct angle. The catapult system operated on schedule and ejected the cabin with the dogs in the mock-up of the ejection seat. The cabin landed safely by parachute only ten kilometers from the designated point of touchdown in the Orsk region in Kazakhstan after a one-day, two-hour spaceflight. Belka and Strelka thus became the first living beings recovered from orbit. The spacecraft itself was only the third object retrieved from orbit. the American Discoverer 13 had preempted Korabl-Sputnik 2 by nine days. Doctors found both dogs in good condition despite the concerns during the mission. Extensive physiological tests proved that there had been no fundamental changes in their health. This flight verified almost all the primary elements of the spacecraft design. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-011A ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 126 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 67 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Program 1971-75, 1976, p. 174, 554 ; A. Siddiqi, Challenge To Apollo (NASA SP-2000-4408), p. 253-4 ; Sven Grahn's The flight of Sputnik-5, a.k.a. Korabl-Sputnik 2 ; Gunter's Vostok-1K ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Discoverer 15 / CORONA 9010 / KH-1 #10 Spacecraft:  CORONA C-10 (including SRV 106 & Discoverer Optical Beacon/SAO Optical Tracking). Chronologies: 1960 payload #25 ; 1960-012A (1960 Mu 1) ; 80th spacecraft, 57th space object catalogued. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  A nearly successful Discoverer mission (but, finally, another failure). •  3rd successful reentry of a ‘spy’ capsule, but it was lost at sea. Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 13 September 1960 at 22h14 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-5, by a Thor-Agena A. Orbit: 210 km x 760 km x 80.93° x 94.24 min. A&A 209 km x 721 km x 80.90° x 94.23 min. ESAM 199 km x 761 km x 80.9° x 94.2 min. USCSP 199 km x 761 km x 80.9° x 94.2 min. TRW  200 km x 755 km x 80.9° x 94.10 min. Wade Decayed: 18 October 1960. Mission: Historical reports:  Discoverer XV placed into polar orbit. On 14 September, recovery capsule of Discoverer XV located from aircraft, but bad weather prevented surface pickup before it sank. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XV was a cylinder, 5.85 metres long, 1.5 metre in diameter, and weighing 770 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: Discoverer 15 was a 863-kg low-resolution, military surveillance satellite. Instrumentation was identical to that of Discoverer 13, with the addition of external lights for optical tracking from ground camera stations (the ‘Discoverer Optical Beacon’). The recovery capsule was ejected, but it felt into the ocean and retrieval was not possible due to inclement weather conditions. The Agena stage reentered the atmosphere and burned up on 17 October 1960.  Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-012A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 127 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1260 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-1 Corona ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Pioneer P-30 / Atlas Able V #3 Spacecraft:  P-30 / Able VA (Atlas Able 5) Chronologies: 1960 payload #26 ; 1960 12th loss ; 80th spacecraft. Type: Lunar probe Significant achievements: • •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA / U.S. Air Force Launch: 25 September 1960 at 15h13 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-12, by an Atlas-Able VA. Orbit: 1,290 km km up. Destroyed: 25 September 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Atlas-Able $ lunar orbital probe of NASA failed to achieve trajectory because of malfunction in one of the upper stages. (A&A, 1961)      An attempt to fire a Pioneer space probe into lunar orbit ended when abnormal burning in the second stage of the Atlas-Able rocket vehicle failed to provide necessary velocity.  The probe was 1 metre diamete and weighed 175.5 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x This Pioner P-30 / Able VA had a slightly different instrument complement from that of its predecessor (Pioneer P-3), but it had similar mission goals. The 175.5-kg probe was to enter lunar orbit about 62.5 hours after launch with parameters of 4,000 x 2,250 kilometers in a period of 10 hours. Although the first stage performed without problems during the launch, the Able second stage ignited abnormally and shut down early because of an oxidizer system failure. The third stage never fired, and the probe burned up in Earth’s atmosphere 17 minutes after launch. Although the mission was a failure, ground controllers fired Able VA’s onboard liquid propellant hydrazine rocket engine – the first time that an onboard motor was fired on a space vehicle. Later, on 15 November 1960, NASA announced that two objects from the Able VA payload had been found in Transvaal, South Africa.     (See Atlas Able V program description in Pioneer P-1.) Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's PIONY ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii, 4 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 128 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p.  69 ; Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger, 1977, Chapter 1 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; A. Siddiqi, SP-2002-4524, p. 26 ; Gunter's Pioneer P-1, P-3, P-30, P-31 ;

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Courier I-B Spacecraft:  Chronologies: 1960 payload #27 ; 1960-013A (1960 Nu 1) ; 82nd spacecraft, 58th space object catalogued. Type: Experimental communications Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: United States' DARPA Launch: 4 October 1960 at 19h50 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-17B, by a Thor-Able-Star. Orbit: 805 km x 1,059 km x 28.3° x 107 min. A&A 938 km x 1,237 km x 28.33° x 106.85 min. ESAM 998 km x 1,237 km x 28.3° x 106.9 min. USCSP 968 km x 1,215 km x 28.3° x 107.1 min. TRW  967 km x 1,214 km x 28.3° x 107.10 min. Wade Decayed: Still in orbit. Mission: Historical reports: Courier I-B active communications satellite successfully placed into orbit by Thor-Able-Star launch vehicle. After completing one orbit, it received and recorded a transcribed message to the United Nations by President Eisenhower, transmitted from Fort Monmouth, N.J., and retransmitted it to another earth station in Puerto Rico. This launch marked the 100th launch of the Douglas’ Thor, military and scientific combined, and a Thor record of 60 percent of the U.S. satellites boosted into orbit. Courier I-B stopped transmitting on 23 October, but radio tracking beacon continued to function. In 18 days, it had transmitted 118 million words. (A&A, 1961)      Courier 1B was a 130-cm sphere weighing 225 kg. Courier was part of NOTUS for developing a communications system utilizing satellites to provide long-range radio communications links, was reoriented to emphasize two programs: Courier and ADVENT. Courier demonstrated the feasibility of a delayed repeater satellite to relieve crowded point-to-point communications when the Courier IB satellite was successfully launched in October. Vast quantities of information were relayed between the ground stations at Puerto Rico and New Jersey. The Courier portion of the NOTUS project is now completed. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-013A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii, 26 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 128, 129,  ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Gunter's Courier 1A, 1B, 1C ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Mars / 1M #1 Spacecraft:  1M no. 1 Chronologies: 1960 payload #28 ; 1960 13th loss ; 83rd spacecraft. Type: Mars probe Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) Launch: 10 October 1960 at 14h28 UT, from Baykonur Cosmodrome's LC-1, by an A-2-e/"Molniya". (Formerly: launched by a SL-6 from Tyuratam.) Orbit: None. Destroyed: 10 October 1960. Mission: The 1960 Mars attempts as reported by the Soviet Space Program, 1971-75 (published in 1976):       “The Soviet Union until recently had never admitted to any launch attempts which fell short of attaining Earth orbit. The United States in a number of instances has been able to monitor such failures, but on only one occasion has disclosed this knowledge officially (on September 5, 1962).  “On October 10, and again on October 14, I960, the Soviet Union launched a new combination of rockets intended to send payloads to the vicinity of Mars, but neither was successful in reaching even Earth orbit. From their subsequent repetitive use of an orbital launch platform technique for planetary and other missions remote from low Earth orbit, we can imagine how the operation was intended to proceed. “People had been expecting a Soviet Mars attempt at the appropriate astronomical "window" for this launch. Premier Khrushchev timed his arrival in New York at the United Nations accordingly, expecting to be able to announce the flights. A seaman defector from the Soviet ship Baltika, which had brought Khrushchev told reporters that onboard the ship was a replica of an advanced spacecraft which was to be put on display if a certain mission were successful. If true, the replica was carried back to the Soviet Union unseen. (SSP, 1976) * * * * * Current overview: x This was the first attempt by humans to send spacecraft to the vicinity of Mars and was the first of two Soviet Mars spacecraft intended to fly past Mars. (The Mars flyby was planned for 13 May 1961.) The 480-kg spacecraft initially included a TV imaging system and a spectro-reflectometer (to detect organic life on Mars), but mass constraints forced engineers to remove both instruments a week before launch. The mission profile called for the probe to first enter Earth orbit and then use a new fourth stage (called “Blok L”) to gain enough additional velocity to fly to a Mars encounter. During the launch, violent vibrations caused a gyroscope to malfunction. As a result, the booster began to veer from its planned attitude, the guidance system failing at 309 seconds, and the third-stage engine was shut down after the trajectory deviated to a pitch of greater than 7 degrees. The payload eventually burned up in Earth’s atmosphere over eastern Siberia.  Notes: 27 September 1960 saw a massive Soviet news buildup for "a day in the history of the world," while Premier Khrushchev was at the U.N. General Assembly meeting In New York. Rumored space spectacular did not apparently take place. (A&A, 1961) Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's MARSNIK1 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 128 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Program 1971-75, 1976, p. 85, 554 ; A. Siddiqi, SP-2002-4524, p. 26 ; Gunter's Mars 1M ;

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SAMOS 1 Spacecraft:  Program 101; SAMOS E-1 /  SAMOS stands for Satellite and Missile Observation Satellite. Chronologies: 1960 payload #29 ; 1960 14th loss ; 84th spacecraft. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 11 October 1960 at 20h33 UT, from Vandenberg Aiur Force Base's LC-1-1, by an Atlas-Agena A. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 11 October 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Samos I launched from Vandenberg AFB, but failed to orbit. (A&A, 1961)      Project Samos is a research and development program to determine the capabilities for making observations of the Earth from satellites. Samos I was launched, however, due to equipment malfunction during launch, orbit was not attained. Samos I was a cylinder, 6.7 metres long and 1.5 metre in diameter, weighing 1,800 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x The SAMOS 1 payload had a mass of 1860 kg including the Agena. It was probably a Program 101 flight and carried the E-1 camera Component Test Payload and F-1 ferret research and development test payload. an Agena failure meant it did not reach orbit. Launch: The Atlas guidance system failed but the Atlas flew successfully. However, at launch an Agena umbilical failed to separate cleanly and the nitrogen attitude control gas leaked out, so that Agena could not be stabilized after separation and fired in the wrong direction.  Notes: The SAMOS satellite system was part of the WS-117L initial military satellite program. It tested visual surveillance (real time radio readout of scanned photographs), film recovery and ferret electronic intelligence. The original SAMOS, Program (or Project) 101, consisted of an Agena A and carried the E-1 0.15-meter focal length strip camera and an F-1 ferret payload. E-1 was a component test payload. Some documents indicate that the F-1 was a separate payload, possibly a subsatellite, but it seems more likely that it remained attached to the Agena. Three Program 101 satellites were built and two were launched. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's SAMOS1 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii, 27 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 129 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Jonathan McDowell's USAF imaging programs' 9.3.1: SAMOS & SAMOS 1 ;Gunter's   ;

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Mars / 1M #2 Spacecraft:  1M no. 2 Chronologies: 1960 payload #30 ; 1960 15th loss ; 85th spacecraft. Type: Mars probe Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) Launch: 14 October 1960 at 13h51 UT, from Baykonur Cosmodrome's LC-1, by an A-2-e/"Molniya".(Formerly: launched by a SL-6 from Tyuratam.) Orbit: None. Destroyed: 14 October 1960. Mission: Historical reports: See Mars / 1M #1 above. * * * * * Current overview: xLike its predecessor, this spacecraft never reached Earth orbit. During the launch trajectory, there was a failure in the third-stage engine 290 seconds into the launch as a result of frozen kerosene in the pipeline feeding its turbopump (which prevented a valve from opening). The third and fourth stages, along with the 480-kg probes, burned up over Earth’s atmosphere over eastern Siberia. (The Mars flyby had been planned for 15 May 1961.)  Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's MARSNIK2 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p.  ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Program 1971-75, 1976, p. 85, 554 ; A. Siddiqi, SP-2002-4524, p. 27 ; Gunter's Mars 1M ;

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The Nedelin Catastrophe       On 24 October 1960, a major disaster happen at the Baykonur Comodrome, killing more than a hundred of personnel, including one of the most important figures of the Soviet missile and space programs. The tragedy was first heard of in the West in the 1970s and since it had happened during a period favorable to launch Mars probes, it was considered a major blow to the Soviet space program. It was only in the 1990s that the full account was revealed (and the fact that it had nothing to do with Mars exploration). Here what had happened.      Numerous important officials were at Baykonur to witness the first launch of the R-16 ICBM which, when it will become operational, will finally give the Soviet Union an active and large-scale strategic deterrent against the United States. Since the R-16 was fueled by storable hypergolic and highly toxic propellants, there had been much difficulty prior to launch, especially in fueling procedures, which caused great consternation at the site. The first launch was originally set for October 23, but a major propellant leak that evening forced a postponement to the next day.       On the orders of the State Commission, all repairs to the missile were carried out in a fully fueled state, creating a remarkably dangerous situation at the pad. The repairs were successfully completed through the night, and all prelaunch operations proceeded as planned, until thirty minutes prior to the set launch time on October 24. At this point, there were still approximately 200 officers, engineers and soldiers near the pad, including Marshal Nedelin, the Strategic Missile Forces Commander-in-Chief, who scoffed at suggestions that he leave the pad area. "What's there to be afraid of? Am I not an officer?," he was reported to have asked.        But suddenly, the missile exploded on the pad, releasing an expanding inferno of destruction around the pad area. Within seconds, the rocket broke in half and fell on the pad, crushing any one who might have still been left alive. At that point, the fire and the heat increased in intensity as all the propellants ignited in a crescendo. Some people were simply engulfed in the fire, while others who managed to run in a burning state succumbed to the toxic gases withing minutes.       Technicians remained hanging from their harness from special cranes as their bodies burned. As the temperature raged to around 3,000 degrees, people just simply melted in the firestorm, many being reduced to ashes, Nedelin himself was identified only by his Gold Star medal attached to his uniform. All told, 126 individuals died in the blast, including senior military officials, deputy chief designers and numerous soldiers. The entire incident was kept under tight wraps, and Marshal Nedelin was said to have died in an aircraft accident, a piece of fiction that the Soviets officially maintained until early 1989.      Investigation revealed that the failure had occurred when the second stage of the R-16 had spuriously started firing on the pad because of a control system failure, thus igniting the propellants in the first stage.  Source: A. Siddiqi, Challenge To Apollo (NASA SP-2000-4408), p. 256-7.

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Discoverer 16 / CORONA 9011 / KH-2 #1 Spacecraft:  Chronologies: 1960 payload #31 ; 1960 16th loss ; 86th spacecraft. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 26 October 1960 at 20h26 UT, from Vandenberg LC75-3-4, by a Thor-Agena B. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 26 October 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XVI successfully launched with new payload, but failed to go into polar orbit. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XVI was a cylinder, 7.6 metres long and 1.5 metre in diameter, weighint 950 kg.(USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Launch failed, as second stage failed to separate. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's DISC16 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 129 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p.  ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-2 Corona ;

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Explorer 8 Spacecraft: NASA S-30 Chronologies: 1960 payload #32 ; 1960-014A (1960 Xi 1) ; 87th spacecraft, 60th space object catalogued. Type: Easth/space science Significant achievements: •  Explorer VIII carried out the first intensive direct measurement study of the Earth's ionosphere. •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA Launch: 3 November 1960 at 05h23 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-26B, by a Juno II. Orbit: 415 km x 2,290 km x 49.9° x 112.7 min. A&A 417 km x 2,288 km x 49.95° x 112.69 min. ESAM 417 km x 2,288 km x 50.0° x 112.7 min. USCSP 407 km x 1,699 km x 49.9° x 106.3 min. TRW  394 km x 1,331 km x 49.9° x 102.20 min. Wade Decayed: 28 March 2012. Mission: Historical reports: Explorer VIII launched into an elliptical orbit for detailed measurements of the ionosphere. This was the 10th time that JPL-developed upper stage rocket clusters had successfully placed satellites or deep space probes auto orbit. On 27 December 1960, Explorer VIII ceased transmitting Ionospheric measurement data acquired in 33,574,560 km and 694.3 orbits, which produced more than 1,100 km of magnetic tape since launch. (A&A, 1961)     Explorer VIII was a 42.7-kg satellite equipped to carry out the first intensive direct measurement study of the Earth's ionosphere, where ultraviolet radiation from the Sun acts upon the atoms of the atmosphere, causing them to lose their electrons (ionized). The satellite has also two secondary objectives: to measure the charge accumulation (static electricityO on the satellite's aluminum surfaces which can be related to the problem of electrical drag; and to measure the number of micrometeoroid impacts. The spin-stabilized satellite, shaped like a toy top, 75 cm long and 75 cm in diameter. Explorer VIII transmissions ceased on 27 December 1960, transmittiend data recorded on 1,100 km of magnetic tape. The satellit has an expected orbital life of 10 years. (USASA, 1961)      See also the Note in Explorer (S-46) above. * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-014A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii, 4-5 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 130, 134, ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 9* ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Gunter's Explorer: S-30 ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Discoverer 17 / CORONA 9012 / KH-2 #2 Spacecraft: Chronologies: 1960 payload #33 ; 1960-015A (1960 Omicron 1) ; 88th spacecraft, 61st space object catalogued. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 12 November 1960 at 20h43 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-5, by a Thor-Agena B (Thor 297 / Agena B 1062). Orbit: 190 km x 990 km  ---° x 96.45 min. A&A 187 km x 991 km x 81.70° x 93.45 min. ESAM 190 km x 984 km x 81.7° x 96.5 min. USCSP 190 km x 984 km x 81.9° x 96.4 min. TRW  190 km x 984 km x 81.7° x 96.40 min. Wade Decayed: 29 December 1960 Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XVII was placed into polar orbit, and restartable Agenda B second stage successfully flown for the first time. The recoverable capsule was ejected on 14 November, after 31 orbits, and successfully snared at 2,750 metres by a C-119 aircraft, the second such recovery In midair of a space object. Discoverer XVII carried the first letter by satellite, a letter from USAF Chief of Staff to the Secretary of Defense. Human tissues exposed to heavy radiation during 50-hour flight of re-covered Discoverer XVII capsule, according to USAF. Scientists later reported that human tissue survived radiation In space, includ-1ng that generated by one of the largest solar storms ever observed. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XVII was a cylinder, 7.6 metres long and 1.5 metre in diameter, weighing 950 kg. The latest version of the Agena upper stage, Agena B, with double the tank capacity and twice the burning time of Agena A, was successfully tested on Discoverer XVII. Everything worked according to plan, including ejection of the capsule from Agena, and mid-air recovery after 50 hours of orbital flight. The Agena has proven to be a highly reliable vehicle, as its propulsion system has never failed; its stabilization system, which makes recovery possible, is the first to maintain an Earth-oriented attitude; ans Agena has also exhibited accuracy and effectiveness.(USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Film capsule recovered 2.1 days after launch. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-015A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii, 24 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 130, 131, 132, 133 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's KH-2 Corona ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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MR-1 / Mercury-Redstone 1 Spacecraft:  Spacecraft no. 2 Chronologies: 1960 payload #34 ; 1960 17th loss ; 89th spacecraft. Type: Piloted spaceship test Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA Launch: 21 November 1960, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-05, by a Redstone. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 21 November 1960 Mission: Historical reports: Mercury Redstone flight test (MR-I) terminated prior to liftoff because of faulty ground support circuitry which had not been noted on some 60 previous Redstone flrings. (A&A, 1961)      An attempt to launch a capsule from Cape Canaveral ended when a signal triggered by the Redstone rocket vehicle's ground connection shut down the engine immediately after ignition. The escape tower rockets ignited almost simultaneously with the Redstone engine shutdown. The escape tower broke loose, shot several thousand metres in the air, and fell back to earth. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's MERCR1 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. 7 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 131 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Gunter's ;

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TIROS II Spacecraft:  Tiros B (A-2) / Television and InfraRed Observation Satellite Chronologies: 1960 payload #35 ; 1960-016A (1960 Pi 1) ; 90th spacecraft, 63rd space object catalogued. Type: Meteorology Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA Launch: 23 November 1960 at 11h13 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-17A, by a Delta. Orbit: 653 km x 742 km x ---° x 96.3 min. A&A 617 km x 732 km x 48.5° x 98.20 min. ESAM 619 km x 732 km x 48.5° x 98.2 min. USCSP  ---- km x 667 km x 48.5° x 97.4 min. TRW  547 km x 610 km x 48.5° x 96.30 min. Wade Decayed: 18 May 2014. Mission: Historical reports: TIROS II weather satellite launched by Thor-Delta at AMR, the 14th successful U.S. satellite launched to date is 1960. (A&A, 1961)      TIROS II, a 125-kg advanced version of TIROS I, was equipped with a narrow-angle and wide-angle television camera, plus infrared sensors to measure solar and terrestrial radiation. The radiation experiment had assisted research meteorologists in studying general circulation of the atmosphere and in determining many features of atmospheric composition and temperature. The spacecraft was a cylinder, 48 cm high and 1.07 metre in diameter, and weighing 127 kg. It had an expected orbital life of 50-100 years. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-002B ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii, 5 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 131 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p.  69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Gunter's Tiros 1 to 10 ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Transit III-A Spacecraft:  Chronologies: 1960 payload #36 ; 1960 18th loss ; 91st spacecraft. Type: Navigation Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. Navy Launch: 30 November 1960 at 19h50 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-17B, by a Thor-Able-Star. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 30 November 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Transit III-A navigation satellite, with two Instrumented payloads, was destroyed 40 minutes after launch. (A&A, 1961)      Transit IIIA was a 90-cm sphere weighint 92 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's TRAN3 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. viii ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 132, ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Gunter's Transit 3A, 3B ;

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Solrad 2 / GREB/Grab #2 Spacecraft:  SR 2 / GRAB 2 ; Solrad stands for Solar Radiation satellite. GREB stands for Galactic Radiation Experiment Background. Chronologies: 1960 payload #37 ; 1960 19th loss ; 92nd spacecraft. Type: Sun studies Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. Navy Launch: 30 November 1960 at 19h50 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-17B, by a Thor-Able-Star. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 30 November 1960. Mission: Historical reports: GREB was a solar radiation experiment satellite launched pick-a-back on Transit in a multiple payload experiment.Solrad was a 50-cm sphere weighing 18 kg.(USASA, 1961) (See also GREB 1 above.) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's SRAD2 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. ix, x, ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p.  ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261 ; Gunter's Grab 1, 2 ;

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Korabl Sputnik 3 (Sputnik 6) Spacecraft:  Vostok-1 no. 3 / Chronologies: 1960 payload #38 ; 1960-017A (1960 Rho 1) ; 93rd spacecraft, 65th space object catalogued. Type: Pilotes spacecraft test Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) (Artwork: Robert Giguère) Launch: 1st December 1960 at 7h30 UT, from Baykonur Cosmodrome's LC-1, by an A-1/"Vostok". (Formerly: launched by a SL-3 from Tyuratam.) Orbit: 188 km x 265 km x 65° x 88.6 min. A&A 180 km x 249 km x 64.97° x 88.47 min. ESAM 167 km x 265 km x 65.0° x 88.6 min. SSP 166 km x 232 km x 65.0° x 88.6 min. TRW  123 km x 269 km x 65.0° x 88.40 min. Wade Destroyed: 2 December 1960 Mission: Historical reports: Spacecraft III launched by U.S.S.R., weighing over 5 tons and carrying a biological payload in its "space cabin." On 3 December, Radio Moscow reported that Spacecraft III descended along an “uncalculated trajectory“ and burned up in the dense atmosphere. (A&A, 1961)      Korabl Sputnik 3 was apparently a repeat of the previous flight except that the perigee was lowered to assure automatic decay within the reserve capacity of the life support system. After one day, retrofire was ordered, but the angle may have been too steep, for the cabin was burned beyond successful recovery. The dogs Pchelka and Mushka became the first important casualties of orbital flight. (SSP, 1976) * * * * * Current overview: x The fourth Vostok 1 spacecraft, called the Third Korabl-Sputnik in the Soviet press, was identical to the ship launched in August, save for the omission of the infrared orientation system that had been the source of so many problems on the previous missions. The spacecraft was launched without incident and placed into an orbit exactly mimicking the one planned at the time for an actual piloted mission. Aboard were two dogs, Pchelka and Mushka. Total mass in orbit was 4,563 kilograms. There was apparently improved biomedical instrumentation on board, as well as a different set of instruments for cosmic and radiation studies.      The flight went well, and there were twelve successful communications sessions for telemetry reception. After about twenty-four hours in orbit, on the seventeenth orbit, the main TDU-1 engine was to fire to initiate reentry. Unfortunately, there was a malfunction in the stabilization system of the engine; the resulting firing was far shorter than had been planned. Although the spacecraft would still reenter, computations showed that the landing would overshoot Soviet territory. The spacecraft made one and a half more orbits, after which the descent apparatus with the dogs separated from the rest of the vehicle.       At this point, a special and unusual system was called into operation, one that was installed to address this precise situation: given the extreme secrecy and xenophobia of the missile and space programs, the only option for designers was to install a self-destruct system aboard the vehicle to destroy the "evidence" before recovery by non-Soviet parties. (Mercifully, such a system was only earmarked for the Vostok precursor missions and not for any actual piloted craft.) In the case of Korabl-Sputnik 3, the system went into operation at the beginning of reentry and destroyed the spacecraft along with its hapless passengers. At the time, the Soviet press merely announced that because of the incorrect attitude, the descent apparatus had burned up on reentry. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-017A ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 132, ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Program 1971-75, 1976, p. 174, 554 ; A. Siddiqi, Challenge To Apollo (NASA SP-2000-4408), p. 259 ; Gunter's Vostok-1K ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Explorer (S-56) Spacecraft:  NASA S-56 Chronologies: 1960 payload #39 ; 1960 20th loss ; 94th spacecraft. Type: Easth/space science Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA Launch: 4 December 1960 at 21h14 UT, from Wallops Island's LA-3, by a Scout X-1. Orbit: None. Destroyed: 4 December 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Attempt to launch a Beacon satellite with a Scout did not succeed due to failure of second stage, (A&A, 1961)      The first orbital launch with the Scout launch vehicle did not achieve objective because the second stage did not ignite. The rocket was intended to place in orbit a 3.7-metre-diameter, inflatable satellite weighting 6.35 kt to measure density of the atmosphere.  (USASA, 1961).(USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Launch: First launch of a Scout rocket. Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's EXS-56 ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. ix, 5 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 132 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1261  ; Gunter's Explorer: AD ;

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Discoverer 18 / CORONA 9013 / KH-2 #3 Spacecraft: Chronologies: 1960 payload #40 ; 1960-018A (1960 Sigma 1) ; 95th spacecraft, 67th space object catalogued. Type: Reconnaissance Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 7 December 1960 at 20h21 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-4, by a Thor-Agena B. Orbit: 230 km x 630 km x ---° x 93.2 min. A&A 233 km x 661 km x 81.50° x 93.66 min. ESAM 243 km x 661 km x 81.5° x 93.7 min. USCSP 243 km x 661 km x 80.8° x 93.8 min. TRW  233 km x 510 km x 81.5° x 92.00 min. Wade Decayed: 2 April 1961. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XVIII was launched Into polar orbit by a new ThorAgena B, carrying surveillance-system equipment and human tissue in recovery capsule. The recoverable capsule was caught on 14 December at 4 km altitude by USAF C-119 crew, after making 48 polar orbits. It contained human eye-lid tissue and blood and bone marrow to study effect of radiation in space. This was the second Discoverer capsule catch by C-119 crew, while precision of the entire operation beginning with launch 8 days previous was considered the most successful to date. On 12 December, sclentists reported that biological specimens Including human tissue recovered from the capsule of Discoverer XVIII two days ago, showed far less radiation effects than specimens recovered from Discoverer XVII. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XVII was a cylinder, 7.6 metres long and 1.5 metre in diameter, weighing 950 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Film capsule recovered 3.1 days after launch. Analysis of six photographic emulsion blocks carried aloft by Discoverer 18 revealed that inner Van Allen radiation belt dips as low as  290 kilometres. Thus manned space operations would probably be restricted to lower latitudes rather than high inclination orbits because it is not feasible to shield against the energetic protons of the inner belt with present payload limitations.  Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-018A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. ix, ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 133 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1232 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona :  NASA, Aeronautical and Astronautical Events of 1962, p. 111 ; Gunter's KH-2 Corona ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Pioneer P-31 / Atlas Able V #4 Spacecraft: P-31 / Able VB (Atlas Able 5B) Chronologies: 1960 payload #41 ; 1960 21st loss ; 96th spacecraft. Type: Lunar probe Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA / U.S. Air Force Launch: 15 December 1960 at 9h10 UT, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-12, by an Atlas Able. Orbit: Up to 13 km. Destroyed: 15 December 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Atlas-Able launch vehicle with NASA cislunar spacecraft exploded 70 seconds after launch. (A&A, 1961)    An attempt to launch a Pioneer space probe ended with an explosion which destroyed the Atlas-Able rocket vehicle 70 seconds after liftoff at an altitude of about 12 km. Purpose of the experiment was to probe the environment between Earth and Moon and to develop technology for controlling and maneuvering spacecraft from the Earth. This Pioneer was a 1-metre sphere weighing 176 kg. Cause of the explosion is under study. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x This was third and last attempt by NASA to launch a probe to orbit the Moon in the 1959-60 period. Able VB mission, as with Pioneer 5 and Pioneer P-30, was to enter lunar orbit. Scientific objectives included studying radiation near the Moon, recording the incidence of micrometeoroids and detecting a lunar magnetic field. Planned lunar orbital parameters were 4,300 x 2,400 kilometers with a period of 9 to 10 hours. The spacecraft had a slightly different scientific instrument complement from that of its predecessors. Unfortunately, the Atlas-Able booster exploded 68 seconds after launch at an altitude of about 12.2 kilometers. Later investigation indicated that the cause was premature Able stage ignition while the first stage was still firing.      (See Atlas Able V program description in Pioneer P-1.) Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's PIONZ ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. ix, 5 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 133 ; Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger, 1977, Chapter 1 ; A. Siddiqi, SP-2002-4524, p. 27 ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1262 ; Gunter's Pioneer P ;

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MR-1A / Mercury-Redstone 1A Spacecraft:  Spacecraft no. 2A Chronologies: 1960 payload #42 ; n/a ; 97th spacecraft. Type: Piloted spaceship test Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: NASA Launch: 9 December 1960, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's LC-05, by a Redstone. Orbit: None, Destroyed: 9 December 1960. Mission: Historical reports: Unmanned Project Mercury spacecraft launched by modified Redstone booster (MR-1) in a suborbital trajectory, Impacting 378 km downrange after reaching an altitude of 217 km and a speed of near [6,750 km/h. Capsule was recovered about 50 minutes after firing. (A&A, 1961)      All capsule systems worked satisfactorily in a suborbital launch of a Mercury capsule with a Redstone rocket. The capsule reached an altitude of 220 km and was recovered from the Atlantic Ocean at a distance of 380 km. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's MERCR1A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p. 8-9 ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 134 ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1262 ; Gunter's ;

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Discoverer 19 / CORONA RM 1 Spacecraft:  Chronologies: 1960 payload #43 ; 1960-019A (1960 Tau 1) ; 98th spacecraft, 68th space object catalogued. Type: Technology Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: U.S. National Reconnaissance Office Launch: 20 December 1960 at 20h32 UT, from Vandenberg Air Force Base's LC-75-3-5, by a Thor-Agena B Orbit: 192.5 km x 644.1 km x 83.4° x 93 min. A&A 206 km x 520 km x 83.40° x 93.00 min. ESAM 209 km x 631 km x 83.4° x 93.0 min. USCSP 209 km x 631 km x 82.8° x 93.0 min. TRW  186 km x 359 km x 83.4° x 90.00 min. Wade Decayed: 23 January 1961. Mission: Historical reports: Discoverer XIX successfully launched into polar orbit, carrying Project Midas tit payload. (A&A, 1961)      Discoverer XVII was a cylinder, 7.6 metres long and 1.5 metre in diameter, weighing 950 kg. (USASA, 1961) * * * * * Current overview: x Source: Jonathan Space Report's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia  Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; National Space Science Data Center's 1960-019A ; U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities, 1960 Report to Congress, 1961, p.  ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 134, ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Encyclopédie sociétique de l'astronautique mondial, 1971, Annexe 1b ; United States Civilian Space Program, 1958-1978, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 1262 ; NRO's Corona : JPL's Corona : Gunter's RM 1, 2 ; Celestrak's Satcat=1960 ;

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Korabl Sputnik Spacecraft:  Vostok-1 no. 4 Chronologies: 1960 payload #44 ; 1960 22nd loss ; 99th spacecraft. Type: Piloted spaceship test Significant achievements: •  •  •  •  Sponsor: Soviet Union (Korolev's Design Bureau) Launch: 22 December 1960 at 7h45 UT, from Baykonur Cosmodrome's LC-1, by an A-1/"Vostok". (Formerly: launched by a SL-3 from Tyuratam.) Orbit: None Destroyed: 22+ December 1960. Mission: Historical reports: This fifth flight test of the Vostok spaceship, and second launch failure, was totally unknown at the time, and  even a reference report like the Soviet Space Program 1971-75, published in 1976, had no knowledge of it. * * * * * Current overview: The fifth Vostok 1 spacecraft was identical to the ship launched three weeks earlier, except for some minor modifications of the TDU-1 braking engine. Also, there was a slightly change in the booster-spacecraft stack: all earlier Korabl-Sputnik missions had used the 8K72 launch vehicle, but this flight would be the first to use a slightly modified variant designated the 8K72K, which substituted the RD-0109 (just over five and a half tons) for the RD-0105 (just over five tons) as the third orbital insertion stage. The nominally increased thrust wouid allow a slightly higher mass planned for the piloted variant.       At launch, the first two stages of the 8K72K booster performed without fault, but the new third stage engine prematurely cut off at 425 seconds into the lift off because of the destruction of the gas generator in the engine. The emergency escape system went into operation, and the spacecraft successfully separated as its flight trajectory described an arc across the Soviet Union. The payload reached an altitude of 214 kilometers and landed about 3,500 kilometers downrange from the launch site in one of the most remote and inaccessible areas of Siberia, in the region of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River close to the impact point of the famed Tunguska meteorite.       By the late hours of December 22, rescue forces began to detect signals from the descent apparatus and a search party was dispatched to try and locate the capsule. The rescue mission turned out to be one of the most harrowing episodes of the time. Once the rescue group was dropped at the general area of the landing site two days late on December 24, but they found themselves in waist-deep snow. By having aircraft fly in the direction of the object, they managed to reach the capsule. Once the team found the spacecraft, they had to approach it with extreme care because the emergency explosive system was to automatically detonate the vehicle sixty hours after landing. By the time they reached the spacecraft, it had already been sixty hours, but the capsule had still not exploded, forcing them to disengage the explosive in minus-forty-degree Centigrade temperatures. They later discovered that the cabling in the explosive system had burned through, neutralizing the bomb. Although both hatches on the descent apparatus had been discarded, the ejection seat had remained within the spherical capsule instead of ejecting out with the dogs. (Later investigation showed that during ejection, the seat had slammed into the side of the exit porthole and remained within the spacecraft.) The dogs were finally taken out of the capsule, a little cold but alive, and flown to safety, arriving in Moscow on December 26.       Bringing the descent apparatus itself back to Moscow proved to be much more difficult as they used a variety of strategies to literally drag the capsule through kilometers of snow. At one point, the recovery team had to terminate all rescue operations and spend the night in the middle of the ice and snow when the temperature dropped to minus sixty-two degrees Centigrade. It was the first week of January 1961 before the vehicle finally arrived in Moscow.      An analysis of the launch abort showed that there were a number of major anomalies on the mission. Following the booster third-stage failure, the Vostok 1 craft was to separate into its component descent apparatus and instrument section modules. This never happened. The two capsules severed their connections only because of the thermal heating on reentering the atmosphere. Furthermore, the ejection seat was to have shot out of the capsule two and a half seconds after the hatch was jettisoned: on this mission, both events occurred simultaneously, causing the craft to deform from the shock of the failed ejection. Then there was the fortuitous failure in the self-destruct system.  Source: Jonathan McDowell's Master List ; Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia Astronautica's 1960 Chronology ; Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p.  ; TRW Space Log 1996 (Vol. 32), p. 69 ; Congressional Research Service, Soviet Space Program 1971-75, 1976, p. ; A. Siddiqi, Challenge To Apollo (NASA SP-2000-4408), p. 259-260 ; Gunter's Vostok-1K ;

 

As of 31 December 1960: “To date, the United States had successfully launched 31 earth satellites (9 of 16 still In orbit were still transmitting) and 2 deep space probes into orbit around the sun. The U.S.S.R. had launched seven satellites (one of which remained in orbit) and one deep space probe. The U.S.S.R, had also launched one lunar impact mission (Lunik II), while Lunik III had passed once around the moon and then went into earth orbit before decaying.  NASA launching record for the year: 22 major space flight attempts, over two-thirds of which were fully successful.“ (A&A, 1961)   . Table – Summary of 1960 Launches . No. .. Soviet Success Soviet  failures* No.  .. American  success  T  American  failures 1) . Luna Ye-3 #1 1) . M Discoverer 9 2) . Luna Ye-3 #2 2) . M Discoverer 10 3) Korabl Sputnik 1 . 3) . M MIDAS 1 4) . Korabl Sputnik 4) Pioneer 5 C . 5) Korabl Sputnik 2 . 5) . C Explorer S-46 6) . Mars / 1M #1 6) TIROS 1 C . 7) . Mars / 1M #2 7) Transit I-B M . 8) Korabl Sputnik 3 . 8) GREB/Grab Dummy M . 9) .. Korabl Sputnik 9) Discoverer 11 (pS1) M . 10) . C Echo (A-10) 11) MIDAS 2 (pS2) M . 12) Transit II-A M . 13) GREB/Grab #1 M . 14) . M Discoverer 12 15) . C Mercury-Atlas 1 16) Discoverer 13 M . 17) Echo 1 C . 18) Discoverer 14 M . 19) . M Courier 1A 20) .Discoverer 15 (pS3) M 21) . C Pioneer P-30 22) Courier 1B M . 23) . M Samos 1 24) . M Discoverer 16 25) Explorer 8 C . 26) Discoverer 17 M . 27) .. C Mercury-Redstone 1 28) TIROS 2 C . 29) . M Transit IIIA 30) . M GREB/Grab #2 31) . C Explorer S-56 32) Discoverer 18 M . 33) . C Pioneer P-31 34) Mercury-Redstone 1A C . 35) Discoverer 19 M . Total 3 Soviet  launch success 6 Soviet  launch failures* 19 American  launch success 16 American launch  failures . 33.3 % launch success (3 in 9) (All civilian spacecraft) 54.3 % launch success (18 in 35) (13 Civilian, 22 Military) .   Notes . pF = partial failure; pS = partial success; ½S = half success; ½F half failure. (Paradoxically, a partial failure is more than a partial success, since it means that the mission was mostly successfull except for an important aspect, as a partial success is a mission which mostly failed except on an important aspect. Same for a half failure and a half success.  Obviously, a launch failure is a complete failure.) pS1 Discoverer 11 was successfully placed into polar orbit but its reentry capsule was not recovered. pS2 MIDAS 2 tumbled following its launch and transmitted data for less than a day. pS3 On-orbit normal operation and nominal reentry for the Discovery 15 capsule, but the recovery crew was unable to catch it (the capsule sank). On 29 July, Project Apollo, “advanced manned spacecraft program“, was first announced at NASA's Industry Confer¬ence.